World Geography

Oil & Water: Precious Resources

Resources for a Modern World

• Oil is most abundant resouce
• Major oil fields are located on Arabian Peninsula, Iran, and Iraq, with natural gas fields close by
• These fossil fuels run cars and trucks, factories, and power plants all over the world-so provide major portion of income

An Oil-Rich Region

• About 1/2 world's oil reserves are found in Southwest Asia
• Presence of oil reserves make the region important because so many countries, including the U.S., depend on its oil

Oil from the Sand

• Oil and natural gas deposits were formed millions of years ago when an ancient sea covered SW Asia
• Microscopic plants & animals lived and died in the waters, their remains sank and became mingled with the sand and mud on the bottom of the sea
• Over time, pressure and heat transformed the material into hydrocarbons, which form the chemical basis of oil and natural gas
• Oil and natural gas do not exist in large pools beneath the ground, but are trapped inside rocks
• Egineers use sophisticated equipment to extract, or remove, the oil

Early Exploration

• Industrialization and the increasing popularity of automobiles made petroleum a highly desired resource
• Beginning in late 1800s, oil companies searched all over the world for oil resources
• First SW Asia discovery of oil was in 1908 in Persia (Iran), then in the Arabian Peninsula, and the Persian Gulf, etc.

Transporting Oil

• Petroleum that has not been processed is called "crude oil"
• After being pumped from the ground, crude oil must be transported to a refinery that will convert it into useful products
• Pipelines transport crude oil either to refineries or to ports where tankers pick it up and move it

Risks of Transporting Oil

• Moving oil always involves the risk of oil spills
• Largest oil spill ever recorded occurred in 1991, during the Persian Gulf War, when a series of tankers and oil storage terminals in Kuwait and on islands off its coast were blown up-more than 240 million gallons of crude oil were spilled into the water and on land
• Buried pipelines in SW Asia help reduce the danger of above ground accidents, but they do happen
• Ocean-going tankers are a much greater risk; many operate in shallow and narrow waterways where spills from collisions or running around are a risk

Oil Dominates the Economy

• Principal resource is oil
• When oil prices are high, Arabian Peninsula countries are able to spend money into development of other parts of their economy, i.e. water development projects
• 1960, group of oil producing nations, including Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, established an organization to coordinate policies on selling petroleum products-called Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
• Purpose of OPEC is to help members control worldwide oil prices by adjusting oil prices and production quotas
• Qatar, UAE, Iran, and Iraq are also members of OPEC

Control of Oil Fields

• Discoveries of oil in 1908 made Iran a center of conflict of the oil fields
• British and Russians clashed
• Between 1980 and 1990, Iran & Iraq fought a war over control of oil fields
• Access to oil-rich regions on the Persian Gulf is strategically important for all nations that import oil
• 1990-1991, Iraq invaded Kuwait, starting the Persian Gulf War; the U.S. and 32 other nations fought to drive the Iraqis out of Kuwait and keep the oil fields open

Providing Precious Water

• Even though oil brings a great deal of money into SW Asia, the most critical resource is water
• Challenge of finding reliable, fresh water supplies has existed since ancient times

Dams and Irrigation Systems

• To meet demands of large farms and growing populations, countries have to build dams and irrigation systems
• Several countries use "drip irrigation"-using small pipes that slowly drip water just above ground to conserve water used for crops
• Other nations are developing ways to use ocean water, such as "desalinization"-removal of salt
• "Fossil water" is also pumped from underground aquifers, but there isn't enough rainfall to recharge aquifers and only about 25-30 years of water usage is left
• Top priority of region is finding ways to conserve and reuse water

Other Resources

• In mountainous lands, such as Turkey, Iran, Lebanon, and Afghanistan, water is plentiful compared with the rest of the region
• Efforts to conserve water have been part of the culture of the people in most of SW Asia for 1000s of years
• SW Asia has deposits of other resources such as coal, metallic minerals such as copper, and non-metallic minerals such as potash and phosphates-However, the deposits are scattered and not very large
  

World Geography

THE PALESTINIAN DILEMMA-1947

The Arab Viewpoint

• They lived in Palestine since the 6th century
• They were afraid of Jewish immigration increase since 1880
• During WWI, Arabs led to believe that British would support plan for all Arabs to have self-determination
• In the Balfour Declaration, they stated their right to be left without a country would not be violated.
• Believed in violence against the Jews

The Jewish Viewpoint

• They have historical ties to Palestine also
• Believed that the only way to end Jewish discrimination and oppression was to creat a Jewish state in their homeland
• In the Balfour Declaration, it gave "mixed" messages because the British also supported the Jews
• After the Holocaust of WWII, Jews belived that the homeless survivors must be allowed to return to Palestine

The United Nations Solution

• Palestine was to partition into 2 states with Jerusalem designated an international city under UN control
• Jewish land was to be more than half of Palestine
• The Jews accepted; the Arabs did not because they did not want to lose land

The Results

• Israel declared independence in 1948
• Within 48 hours the Arab League countries joined Palestinian Arabs to attack Israel
• Israel ended up gaining three fourths of Palestine
• Jordan & Egypt divided the rest of Palestine
• Palestinian Arabs are left without a country

World Geography

THE MIDDLE EAST

COUNTRIES OF THE REGION: Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Turkey, Cypress, Iran, and Afghanistan

CROSSROADS/PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: Refer to geodata

POPULATION: unevenly distributed; most live near water (A.) along rivers & coastlines (B.) in mountain & plateau regions where climate is cooler; rainfall & vegetation are more abundunt.

IMPORTANT RESOURCES: (A.) crude oil & natural gas: Persian Gulf countries (OPEC)
(B.) water is scarce: rivers=water source in region; drought-resistant plants, drip irrigation & water carriers

THREE WAYS OF LIFE: (A.) farming: little arable land in the region; mostly deserts & mountains (B.) city living-some of the oldest cities in the world. Cradle of civilization: Tigris & Euphrates River Valley. These two major rivers of the region originate in Eastern Turkey and are ancient centers for trade and commerce. Lack of opportunities in rural areas is one reason urban population increases. (C.) nomadic herding: for centuries, small family groups of Arabic nomads called Bedouins have lived in region's deserts herding goats, sheep, and camels/trading & harvestingsalt in some deserts. Highly organized cultures. Moved from place to place. Use knowledge of water sources and seasonal changes to survive. Deserts have wadis (dry river beds) and oases (plural for oasis)- sites where there are underground springs

BIRTHPLACE OF THREE MAJOR RELIGIONS: (A.) Judaism began about 4,000 B.C. (or B.C.E.) People called Jews, who are the descendents of Hebrews. Their Holy Book is the Torah which are the books of the Old Testament of the Bible- first five parchment scrolls are called the Torah. They are not like other religions of time- Monotheistic. Jews lived on Earstern shore of Mediterranean Sea- kingdoms of Israel, 1,000 B.C.E.. Jerusalem is their holiest city and a synagogue is where they worsip. Deity called Yahweh or Jehovah. (B.) Christianity began about A.D. 30 or C.E in the same physical region as Judaism began. Region was known as Palestine named by the Romans for the regional group called the Philistines. Monotheistic based on teachings of Jesus Christ who was born and raised as a Jew. Teachings of Christ were threatening to many people; he was put on trial and crucified in the city of Jerusalem. His followers began a religion. Jerusalem is the holiest city of the Christian people. Their Holy Book is the Bible, Old and New Testaments. Deity is called God. (C.) Islam is the third major monotheistic religion to begin in Middle East. Began in the City of Mecca on Arabian Peninsula around 622 C.E. People are called Muslims, who are the followers of the prophet Mohammed. Original followers adopted Arabic language Mecca and Jerusalem are the holiest cities of Muslims-they believed Mohammed ascended to heaven in the city of Jerusalem. Their Holy Book is the Qu'ran/Koran. It was originally written in Arabic, today it's written in many languages. Archangel Gabriel was said to have told Mohammed. A mosque is an Islamic place of worship. Deity is called Allah.

CULTURE & GOVERNMENT: (A.) Islamic culture and government dominates in countries of Southwest Asia except Israel. Islamic religion has 2 major sects- Sunni ( 85-90%) and Shiite/Shia (10-15%). Muslims are expected to live by the Five Pillars of Islam. Basic principles of the Five Pillars:

1. Shahadah: declaration and affirmation of faith in Allah (speaking their faith)
2. Salah: obligatory prayers performed 5 times a day, facing the city of Mecca.
3. Zakat: giving of charity and alms to the poor.
4. Ramadan: Muslims fast or abstain from food and drink from first light until sundown during the 9th month.
5. Hajj: religious pilgrimmage to Mecca where Muslims fill their religious duty.

GOVERNMENT: Many Islamic countries have autocratic rulers were the ruler in the government has absolute power or authority. Many countries have strict governments based on Religious Law called a theocracy, a government ruled by a religious leader under strict religious law.

CULTURE FACTORS: Men over 21 can vote; women cannot vote, Restriction for worman (purdah)

Women cannot...

• drive cars in many countries
• marry outside their religion
• CAN get a divorce but children usually remain with their father
• women must be covered with traditional dresses such as an Abaya, Chador, or Burqa when outside their home or must cover their hair with a traditional Hajib
• MUST be accompanied by a family member when they're outside.
• MUST become citizens of their husbands' countries

Women can...

• inherit money
• use birth control
• go to school

World History

THREE MAJOR RELIGIONS OF SOUTHWEST ASIA

Judaism

• Deity: Jehovah, Yahweh, Elohim
• People: Hebrews and Jews
• Began: 4,000 B.C.
• Place of Origin: Israel, Palestine
• Place of Worship: Synagogue
• Traditional Day of Congregational Prayer: Saturday
• Religious Leader: Rabbi
• Worshippers Worldwide: 14 million
• Holy Book: Torah
• Holiest City: Jerusalem
• Major Areas of Settlement: Israel, Europe and USA
• Tenets (laws): 10 Commandments

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Christianity

• Deity: God, Holy Trinity
• People: Christians
• Began: A.D. 33
• Place of Origin: Palestine
• Place of Worship: church, chapel
• Traditional Day of Congregational Prayer: Sunday
• Religious Leader: Priest, Minister, Pastor
• Worshippers Worldwide: 2 billion
• Holy Book: Bible
• Holiest City: Jerusalem
• Major Areas of Settlement: Europe, the Americas, and Africa
• Tenets (laws): 10 Commandments

Islam

• Deity: Allah
• People: Muslims
• Began: A.D. 622
• Place of Origin: Saudi Arabia
• Place of Worship: Mosque
• Traditional Day of Congregational Prayer: Friday
• Religious Leader: Imam
• Worshippers Worldwide: 1.3 billion
• Holy Book: Qu'ran
• Holiest City: Mecca
• Major Areas of Settlement: Middle East, Southeast Asia
• Tenets (laws): 5 Pillars

Biology

The Origins of Life: How did it begin?



Evolution attempts to answer the same questions using science.



Some interesting things to consider:

-At present: there are 30-40 million species alive today

• this constitutes about 1% of all the species that have EVER lived on this planet


• this means about 99% of species that have ever lived are extinct

In the beginning: 1 species

Evolution=change/time

There are two components: change and time

• Is there evidence that life has changed througout the history of this planet?


• How long did this take? Is there evidence to support this?

SOME EARLY IDEAS AND IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS:

1. Charles Bonet: 1720-1793

• Proposes that evolution occurs through a series of catastrophes

Minerals --> Plants --> Animals --> Intelligent Beings (humans) --> angels

• One of the first to use term evolution in a scientific sense

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Jean Baptiste Lamarck: 1744-1829

• A naturalist has made significant contributions in the areas of botany and invertebrate zoology


• One of the first to proponents of the idea that evolution occurs in accordance with natural laws


• Developed the famous evolutionary idea: "The Inheritance of Acquired Traits"

1. The Principle of Use and Disuse- the more a particular organ or structure is used, the more it will develop. The less an organ is used, the more it will deteriorate over time

2. In a struggle for survival, an individual's traits will be pushed to improve via this force

3. Once structure is modified via use and disuse, the modification is passed on to the offspring.

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August Weisman: 1834-1914

• Disproved Lamarck's idea of the inheritance of acquired traits


• Cut the tails off of mice (an acquired characteristic) for 21 generations


• 22nd generation still had tails

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Charles Lyell: 1797-1875

• 1830- Wrote "Principles of Geology"


• suggests earth was formed via a slow and gradual process: uniformitaranism
• contrasted catastrophism, which went hand-in-hand with biblical chronology
• in summary...it suggests that the earth is much older than we thought

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Charles Darwin: 1809-1882

• came from a prestigious family in England; father was a well known surgeon
• father wanted him to follow in his footsteps, but Charles could not stand the brutality of current medicine
• preferred the work of a naturalist: geology, botany, zoology, taxonomy, etc.
• father sent him to Cambridge University to become a clergyman
• at Cambridge, Darwin continued his studies as a naturalis and became well respected in this field
• 1831: Darwin takes the unpaid position as ship naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle
• the expedition's purpose is to chart the coast line of South America
• the voyage took 5 years
• Darwin's job was to study and collect specimens of the native plants, animals, and geology

SOME IMPORTANT INFLUENCES ON DARWIN:

• Charles Lyell: Geologist that wrote "Principles of Geology"

-suggests the earth is very old (contrary to popular belief)

• Thomas Malthus: Economist that wrote a paper on human population growth

-populations grow faster than the environments ability to support them

-this leads to competition

• Physical Environment and Wildlife:

-the geology of the earth and the variety of plant and animal life is like nothing he's ever

seen before

GALAPAGOS ISLANDS:

• series of small volcanic islands 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador
• located along the equator
• amazing variety of wildlife
• home to many endemic species (found no where else in the world)
• many species vary from island to island (similar but different)
• variations seem to fit with the physical environment in which the organisms live
• each island had a slightly different species of finch
• beak size and shape was one difference that interested Darwin
• the beak structure fit with the food source that was available on each island

DARWIN'S CONTROVERSIAL BOOK: ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES

• although it was not his passion, Darwin was trained as a clergyman and was still a religious person
• before his voyage, he was a strong proponent of devine design (a literal explanation of earth's history and evolution based on biblical standards)
• as the voyage progressed, he began to form new opinions on this matter
• 1838: he formed the theory of natural selection
• for fear of religious and social prosecution he did not publish this idea
• 1858: Darwin learns that Alfred russel Wallace has independently developed a similar theory; this persuades Darwin to publish jointly with Wallace

DARWIN'S THEORY: NATURAL SELECTION

1. Variation: there is genetic variation within a population

• every individual is slightly different from the next
• examples: some cheetahs are faster or larger than other cheetahs

2. Adaptation: some of these variations are favorable - 'adaptations'

• a characteristic that is genetically controlled
• gives the organism some advantage - increases the chance of survival
• example: walking stick's shape and color hides it from predators

3. Survival: not all offspring can survive

• organisms produce far more offspring than can possibly survive
• why can't they all survive? living factors-predators, disease, weather, competition for food and space, etc.
• overpopulation leads to competition
• who will survive? individuals with adaptations "survival of the fittest"
• fitness: an individual's ability to reproduce and pass on its genes

4. Reproduction: organisms that DO survive will reproduce and pass on its adaptations to their offspring

• organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and mate with organisms that have similar traits
• this produces offspring that also produce these favorable traits

5. Change/Time: Over long periods of time, these characteristics will increase in a population and the nature of the population will gradually change

• these changes accumulate within the population generation after generation
• this process takes an extremely long amount of time
• individuals DO NOT evolve in their lifetime! a species will evolve over many generations

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:

• the organisms have no control over this process! we cannot choose to evolve
• the natural environmental conditions and resources are what drive this process. hence the name: natural selection

Biology

Vocabulary:

Clade: a group of organisms that share a common ancestor

Cladistics: hierarchichal classification of organisms based on evolutionary ancestry

Phylogenic tree: "evolutionary tree" showing the relationships between organisms and their common ancestors

Homologous structure: a similar characteristic of organisms that comes from a common ancestor (results of a divergent evolution)

Vestigial structure: a homologous structure that has lost its functionality

Analogous structure: characteristics that serve a similar function but evolved separately