U.S. History

Jacksonian Democracy and the Market Revolution

Jacksonian Democrats cherished the simplicity and naturalness of Jefferson's agrarian republic. They assumed power at the height of the Market Revolution. Commerce was welcomed as long as it served the independence and rough equality of white men. Unfortunately there were two problems facing Democrats: paper currency and dependence on credit.

The problems with paper economy:

1. It separated wealth from "real work"
2. It encouraged the spirit of luxury and greed
3. It required government-granted privileges

The problems with the American System:

1. It was anti-republican
2. It was unacceptable

Jackson aimed to curtail government involvement in the economy, to end special privilege, and to rescue the republic from the Money Power.

Those who favored an activist government, the Whigs, opposed Jackson and his followers. The Whigs encouraged economic development and national prosperity. They wanted a national market economy that would soften sectional divisions. They argued that Jacksonian rhetoric was little more than the demagoguery of unqualified, self-seeking politicians (oh, snap).

The point of focus between the Jacksonians and the Whigs was the Second Bank of the United States. It was chartered by Congress in 1816. It received revenues from the national government. It could demand redemption in specie or gold and silver. It issued notes that were the beginnings of a national currency and exercised control over the nation's monetary and credit systems.

The bank promised a stable, uniform paper currency and competent, centralized control over banking. Americans distrusted and resented the bank because they blamed it for the Panic of 1819. Jackson agreed with them. He lost money in early speculation and he distrusted paper money. He believed the bank and money were unconstitutional and the only safe money was gold and silver. The bank was a government-sponsored concentration of power.

The Bank reapplied for its charter in 1832. Senator Henry Clay and Daniel Webster supported the Bank. The Bank President was Nicholas Biddle. Congress passed the recharter bill, and Jackson vetoed it. Most voters supported Jackson and he won the 1832 election by a landslide.

Jackson began his second term determined to kill the Bank. He withdrew from the bank government revenues, and put them into pro-Jackson banks, "pet banks." He had to fire two Secretary of Treasury to get this done (it was something the Treasury had to approve of), and he rewarded the Secretary of Treasury who agreed to this with the title of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (after John Marshall had passed).

The Whigs were advocates of the American System. They critisized Jackson and mockingly referred to him as "King Andrew" because of his use of executive patronage, his excessive vetoes of congressional legislation, and his determination to reduce federal spending.

The Bank's best friend in the government was Daniel Webster, who was one of the three ealry Whig leaders: Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. (The House leader of the Democrats was James K. Polk)

Martin Van Buren was Jackson's chosen successor. He ran against three Whig candidates who were:

• Daniel Webster of the Northeast
• William Henry Harrison of the West
• Hugh Lawson White of the South

The Whig's strategy was to throw the election to the House (again). It didn't work. Van Buren was the candidate of a national Democrat Party. He wanted to avert the dangers of sectionalism. Van Buren took 15 of 26 states. He had 170 electoral votes, and 58% of the popular vote.

However, the Panic of 1833 started when Van Buren had barely taken office. This was because the Bank of England had cut off all credit, and the British demand for American cotton dropped. The result was business failures, wage declines, and the Worst depression in the U.S. history up to that time. The Whigs, of course, blamed Jackson's hard money policies.

In the election of 1840, the Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison, the hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe. He was a westerner and from the southern state of Virginia. He was a proven vote-getter and also a military hero (like Jackson). His running mate was John Tyler ("Tippecanoe and Tyler, too!"). His campaign was called the Log Cabin Campaign.

Harrison received 234 of the electoral college votes and Van Buren received 60 (ouch).

The second party system was the most fully national alignment in U.S. history. The election of 1840 completed the second party system. Harrison and Van Buren contested the election in every state.

U.S. History

Jacksonian Democracy and the South

There was a final crisis between frontier whites and the eastern woodland Indians. Few Native Americans were left east of the Appalachians: the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws and the Seminoles. They had tenure granted by federal treaties, and they were recognized as sovereign peoples.

Southwestern whites resented Indian policy. They believed the Indians were offensive to white democracy and states' rights. Poorer farmers coveted Indian land. Southerners denied the federal government had authority to make treaties within their states. A lot of the resistance centered in Georgia.

Andrew Jackson agreed that the federal government did NOT have authority to recognize native sovereignty within a state. He offers to remove them west of the Mississippi River. So in 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act.

However, certain cases made it to the Supreme Court:

• Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1830): The Cherokee Indians couldn't sue the state of Georgia because they were not a sovereign people but domestic dependent nations and thus, dependents of the federal government.
• Worcester vs. Georgia (1832): The Supreme Court declared that the state of Georgia's extension of state law over Cherokee land was unconstitutional; however, Jackson overruled this verdict, and it had no effect.

"John Marshall has made his decision: now let him enforce it!"--Andrew Jackson

The Trail of Tears describes the tortuous trek 18,000 Cherokees made to Oklahoma, with 4,000 dying along the way.

The political consequences were many. This violated the Supreme Court decisions (if a President did that nowaday, he would probably be impeached), and it also strengthened Jackson's reputation as an enemy of the rule of law. It reaffirmed the link between racism and white democracy in the South. Also, it announced Jackson's commitment to state sovereignty and limited federal authority.

Southerners and the Tariff

It was known as the Tariff of Abominations by many. It was designed by Martin Van Buren to win votes for Jackson. Vice President John C. Calhoun of South Carolina opposed the tariff because:

1. The Missouri debates made them look for ways to safeguard slavery.
2. The Denmark Vesey slave conspiracy of 1822.
3. Federal court decision on black seamen.
4. Talk of gradual emancipation
5. The tariff talk urged the South to trade favors with the Northwest
6. The American System benefited the Northwest and commercial Northeast producers at the expense of the South
7. South could do nothing to block the passage of the law

The South could protect itself from national majorities ONLY if they possessed the power to veto federal legislation within their state. This echoes the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves of 1798-99 and anticipates the 1861 secessionist arguments.

The Nullifiers did not, however, have the support of Jackson, and John C. Calhoun did not become the next president.

"The Union must be preserved!"--Andrew Jackson

William Lloyd Garrison declares war on slavery. There was a slave rebellion led by Nat Turner in 1831.

The Force Bill: empowered Jackson to lead an army into South Carolina to prevent it from nullifying the Tariff of Abominations.

They came up with the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which lowered tariffs over the course of several years.

The "Petticoat Wars"

Peggy O' Neal Timberlake Eaton was the center of the Petticoat Affair. She was the beautiful tavern keeper's daughter, and she married Secretary of War John H. Eaton, but because she did not wait a proper amount of time to mourn for her late husband, who served in the navy, it was incredibly scandalous (I'm really curious as to what our founding fathers would say about the looseness of women today). Because of this, the Jackson Administration shunned and ostrasized her and her husband. The leader of the assault on Peggy was none other than Foride Calhoun--wife of Vice President John C. Calhoun. This split the Administration in half as Jackson supported the Eatons and defended Peggy.

The Peggy Eaton Controversy resolved in ways that favored Van Buren, and she was made official hostess of the White House. Jackson began consulting with an informal group of advisors, the Kitchen Cabinet. Van Buren was the Vice President Candidate in 1832 to replace Calhoun.

There was direct challenge to Van Buren's Democratic Party promise to protect slavery with a disciplined national coalition committed to states' rights. The reformer core of the northern Whig Party (which was made solely to oppose Jackson) was made of middle-class evangelicals. Jacksonian Democrats, however, wanted to keep moral issues out of politics. Abolitionists launched a postal campaign to flood the mail with anti-slavery tracts, and the question of censorship came up. This led to the development of the Gag rule. Any mail that was received, addressing the slavery issue, was tossed out without being opened.

Jacksonians agreed the surest guarantee of safety within the Union is a disciplined Democrat Party, and Calhoun believed that nullification was the answer to how to maintain the Union with slavery. Jacksonians/Democrats insisted that the Union was inviolable. Democrats guaranteed southern rights by uniting northern and southern agrarians.

U.S. History

Republican Revival

The presidency of James Monroe is marked as the Era of Good Feelings because of the lack of political opposition, which was largely due to the collapse of the Federalist party. The Jeffersonian-Republicans, however, lose their way. Federalist programs enacted in the name of Republicanism helped bring on the Panic of 1819. The collapse of party discipline allowed the Missouri question to degenerate into a sectional free-for-all. There comes a call for Jeffersonian revival, which includes limited government power and guaranteed southern rights.

Martin Van Buren is the leader of New York's Bucktail Republicans, and he is soon elected to the United States Senate. He was talented with no influential family connections. His political career was based on a commitment to Jeffersonian principles, personal charm and party discipline. He invented the modern political party (not something that's particularly useful...).

Post-1819 America was at a dangerous turning point where disciplined political parties were necessary. Competition and party divisions were inevitable and good. Van Buren built a coalition of northern and southern agrarians, which resulted in the Democratic Party and the National two-party system.

The Election of 1824

The Presidential candidates:

• Republican: William H. Crawford
• New England: John Quincy Adams
• The West: Henry Clay
• The South: John C. Calhoun
• The Wild Card: Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson's popularity was more based on his image as a military hero than a political strategist.

Sixteen states chose presidential electors by popular vote, and six states left the choice to state legislatures.

Popular vote totals:

• Jackson: 153,000
• Adams: 114,000
• Clay: 47,000
• Crawford: 47,000

Jackson's support was more national. Adam's support came from New England, and Clay's came from the Northwest while Crawford's came from the Southeast. (Crawford suffered a crippling stroke during the election)

"The Corrupt Bargain"

Jackson assumed he had won the election (and who can blame him?) because his percent of the popular vote was 42%, and Adam's was 32%. However, he needed 131 electoral college votes to win the Presidency, and he only received 99. Under the U.S. Constitution, the election was thrown to the House of Representatives. The House then chooses from the top three candidates. Henry Clay is eliminated, but he led the election as speaker of the House. He throws the election to Adams by 1 vote. Adams then appoints Clay his Secretary of State (which was basically the step before becoming president). Jackson calls this the "Corrupt Bargain."

The Corrupt Bargain helps nourish a rising democratic movement. The charge of corruption followed Clay for the rest of his life.

Jackson considered the Corrupt Bargain as example of the corruption that the nation had suffered for the past 10 years. Jackson blamed the Panic of 1819 on the Bank of the U.S. He believed the national debt was a source of corruption and must be paid off and never allowed to recur. The federal government was filled with swindlers who were taking power for themselves and scheming against the liberties of the people. There were also suspicions of "King Caucus," which was the selection of a president by backstairs deals rather than by popular election.

The Corrupt Bargain of 1825 made it clear: either the people or the political schemers would rule.

Adams v. Jackson

As Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams was pretty impressive. With the Rush-Bagot Treaty, he helped pacify the northern border, he restored American fishing rights off the coast of Canada, he drew the U.S.-Canada border line, and he turned the border into a peaceful boundary.

With the Adams-Oniz Treaty, Adams pacified the southern border, he procured Florida from Spain, he defined the U.S.-Spanish (later Mexican) border west of the Mississippi, and he helped Americans lay claim to the Pacific Coast.

A little known fact, the Monroe Doctrine was actually written by John Quincy Adams. During this time, the Spanish colonies in the Americas were declaring independence, and the Monroe Doctrine supported them and declared American opposition to any European attempt at colonization in the New World. This doctrine was enforced and backed up by the British Navy.

Nationalism at Home

John Q. Adams went out of his way to isolate himself and to offend popular democracy.

His plan for national development:

• Federal money for roads, canals, and a national university.
• A national astronomical observatory.

Congressional response:

• They could not believe their ears.
• Adams connected with federal public works projects and high taxes, intrusive government, the denial of democratic majorities, and expanded opportunities for corruption, secret deals and special favors.
• Congress never acted on the president's proposals.

The Birth of the Democratic Party

Van Buren switched allegiances to Jackson. He considered Andrew Jackson to the head of a disciplined Democratic Party. They planned to continue the policies of Jeffersonian Republicans. They linked popular democracy with the defense of southern slavery. They proposed to revive the alliance of planters of the South and Republicans of the North.

The Democratic Party was committed to Agrarian programs of states' rights and minimal government. Van Buren feared that there would be an expensive and invasive national state, the isolation of the slaveholding South, and thus, the mortal danger to the republic.

Election of 1828

This turned out to be a gossip/slander match rather than a debate on public issues. Adams and Jackson's henchmen personalized the campaign (dissing each other, each other's wife, each other's family, etc. Anything's fair game). Jacksonians hammered away at the Corrupt Bargain and the dishonesty and weakness of Adams. The Adams forces attacked Jackson's character, his tendency to solve problems with duels and tavern brawls, described Jackson's execution of militiamen, and said Jackson was a bastard and his mother a prostitute. They also accused Jackson's wife, Rachel, of bigamy (multiple marriages).

However, the Adams strategy backfired. In fact, many criticized Adams for making Jackson's personal life a political issue.

On a completely different note...Andrew and Rachel Jackson:

• were models of marital fidelity.
• in romantic love for 40 years.
• were a triumph of what was right and just over what was narrowly legal.

Anyway, when Adams tried to brand Jackson as a lawless man, Jackson's imaged actually got better. He became a melodramatic hero who battled shrewd, unscrupulous, legalistic enemies in the eyes of the people.

And during the election the voters turn out doubled that of 1824. The results were:

• Jackson -Popular vote: 56% and Electoral College vote: 178
• Adams - Popular vote: 44% and Electoral College vote: 83

Adams carried New England, Delaware, and most of Maryland, and part of New York, but Jackson carried every other state.

Jackson-Adams Contrast

1. Triumph of democracy over genteel statesmanship
2. Limited government over expansive nationalism
3. The South and West over New England
4. Popular melodrama over cultural gentility

The People's Inauguration

Jackson was deep in mourning for his beloved wife, who had passed away right before this time. In his inaugural address he acknowledged respect for states' rights, equity, caution and compromise regarding the tariff, reform for the civil service, and retirement of the national debt.

The Spoils System

Serving as Jackson's Secretary of State was Martin Van Buren, the rest of Jackson's cabinet were called the "millennium of the Minnows." This was because Van Buren seemed to be the only capable staff on his cabinet. Everyone else was hired because they were close to Jackson, not because they were able and educated.

For example, Samuel Swarthout was made the collector of the Port of New York. His office handles $15 million in tariff revenue; he stole $1.2 million and fled to Europe.

This became known as the spoils system. ("To the victor belongs the spoils.") It was patronage, the dispensing of government jobs--very much like cronyism.

U.S. History

Jacksonian Democracy

Once upon a time (1800s), the U.S. government had no idea what it was doing (not unlike now...) and asked itself two very important questions:

1. How do we protect the Union and deal with the deepening rift between slave states and free states?
2. How much participation in economic life should the federal government have?

The Whig Party: We like the American System. The national government should subsidize roads and canals, fost industry with protective tariffs, and maintain a national bank capable of exercising centralized control of credit and currency. Then, there would be a peaceful, prosperous national market society. By doing business with each other, sectional fears and jealousies would quiet down.

Jacksonian Democrats: The American System is unconstitutional. It violates the rights of states and localities, it taxes honest citizens in order to benefit corrupt and wealthy insiders, and most dangerous of all, Whig economic nationalism would creat an activist, interventionalist national government.

Prologue: 1819

Jacksonian democracy was rooted in two events:

1. The admission of Missouri into the Union in 1819.
2. A severe financial collapse (Panic of 1819)

The two results:

1. By 1820, politicians (ugh...) had reconstructed the limited-government, states-rights coalition that elected Thomas Jefferson
2. By 1828, they had formed the Democratic party with Andrew Jackson at its head

In 1804, Jefferson sends Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the Louisiana Purchase.

Meriwether Lewis was President Jefferson's personal secretary, and William Clark was the brother of Indian fighter George Rogers Clark.

The purposes of the Lewis and Clark expedition was to explore the land, to make maps, and to keep meticulous journals. They had an indispensible guide, Sacagawea--a teenager at the time. She was the Shoshone wife of a French fur trader named Toussaint Charbonneau. They left in the May of 1804 amd returned to St. Louis in September 1806.

Louisiana enters the Union in 1812, but there was an Indian tribe controlling the northern part of teh Louisiana Purchase: the Sioux.

Missouri

The first new state carved out of the Louisiana Purchase was Missouri. This led to a serious conflicts which brought about the proposals of several amendments.

The Tal madge Amendments:

1. Barred additional slaves from being brought into Missouri.
2. Emancipated slaves born after admission when they reached the age of 25
3. Missouri enters Union as a free state
4. Not the result of humitarian concerns but about balance of political power; because of the 3/5 clause in the Northwest Ordinance, 3/5 of the slave population counted for representation of the South, which made the North nervous

Virginia had a "stranglehold" on the presidency (all first four presidents except for John Adams) were from Virginia.

In Congress, the House opposed to admitting Missouri as a slave state, and the Senate was in favor of admitting Missouri as a slave state. The result was one of the angriest sessions of Congressional history.

Then they came to a compromise. The North gets the new state of Maine (who, at the time, belonged to Massachusetts), and it would be a free state. Missouri would become a slave state, in turn.

The Thomas Proviso:

1. Admitted Missouri as a slave state
2. Outlawed slavery above the 36-30 N Latitude
3. Two states opened to slavery: Oklahoma and Arkansas
4. Closed to slavery: the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase
5. Number of resulting free states: 9

Congress passed the Thomas Proviso.

The Missouri crisis caused a collision between Southern commitment to slavery and Norther resentment of southern political power. It also revealed uncompromising gulf between slave and free states.

Southerners talked openly of disunion and civil war. Northerners opposed the extension of slavery.

"The slavery question like a fire-bell in the night, awakened and filled me with terror" --Thomas Jefferson

Panic of 1819

European agriculture was recovering from the Napoleonic wars. Therefore, Europe did not need as much American food as they did during the war (the agricultural fields had turned into battlefields). American gold and silver cut off from Europe by war and revolution in the New World. Debt-ridden, the European governments hoarded available gold and silver.

American bankers and businessmen expanded credit; unfortunately, the expanded credit was based on dreams--not actual gold and silver.

In 1816, Congress chartered the Bank; however, it became a part of the problem. The Western branches of the Bank got involved in the land speculation boom. Eastern branches of the Bank hatched criminal schemes to enrich themselves. The new Bank president saved the Bank of the United States. The result was that national money and credit system collapsed. The economic depression was the first failure of the market economy.

Results of the Panic of 1819:

• Massive unemployment nationwide
• Americans resented banks
• "The Bank was saved and the people ruined."
• The Bank's nickname: "the Monster"

U.S. History

Market Revolution in the South

After the War of 1812, the Southern market economy expanded dramatically because of the resumption of international trade, the revival of British textile production, the emergence of American factory production, and the enlargement of the cotton belt across former southwest.

In 1834, the new states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana produced more than one-half of U.S. cotton. In 1859, they produce 79% of the country's cotton.

Slave Labor

Slaves were organized toward two objectives: to maximize production and to reinforce the dominance of white men who owned farms. Cotton production was especially well-suited for slave labor.

Slave labor after 1820 was more systematic and more humane. Southern slave owners supervised work more closely, tried to subsitute gang labor for the task system, corrected slaves whose work was slow or sloppy, tried to present Southern slavery as paternalistic & humane, improved the slaves' food and clothing, forbade brutal forms of discipline, and asked for slaves to take Sundays off.

Because cotton became such a hot commodity, slave labor increased dramatically from 1,191,354 slaves (1810) to 3,953,760 slaves (1860).

Yeoman and Planters

Yeomen and planters were subsistence farmers who farmed to survive. The Market Revolution commercialized southern agriculture. However, fewer white Southerners were enjoying the benefits. There was an unequal distribution of wealth, and the creation of a dual economy. Plantations were at the center of commercial life and yeomanry was on the fringes.

There was a dangerous fault line in southern politics between plantation owners and yeomanry.

The concentration of wealth in planters had profound effects on how the Market Revolution affected the region. Most whites remained only marginally related to the market economy. The South remained a poor market for manufactured goods.

The North's demand for products fueled the economic revolution. They were creating self-sustaining economic growth. The Market Revolution produced commercial agriculture, specialized labor, and technological innovation.

The South remained a poor market for manufactured goods, supplied slaves with cheap cloth, continued to export its plantation staples, and simply produced more factories, commercial institutions, and cities to serve the plantation. The planters and their families got their products from Europe.

New southern technology included Eli Whitney's hand-operated cotton gin and the cotton press (to compress ginned cotton into bales). Cotton was a labor-intensive crop that discouraged innovation. Southern state governments spent little on internal improvements, and they built few cities. Southern money also stayed up north: 40 cents per dollar produced by cotton.

U.S. History

Transportation Revolution

Because of dramatic improvements in transportation, old communities were tied together, previously isolated neighborhoods were penetrated, and the transition to a market economy was made physically possible.

Transportation in 1815 was primitive to nonexistant. The U.S. was a rural nation; Americans despaired of doing business on a national scale, and transportation west of the Appalachians were almost entirely undeveloped. Western farmers moved their products downstream to tributaries of the Ohio-Mississippi Rivers. A keelman had the responsibilities of transporting goods upstream, going against the current which could take months. The most famous keelman was Mike Fink.

No matter, transport costs were expensive and the result was that trans-Appalachian settlements remained marginal to market economy. The main port for western products in 1815 was New Orleans.

Internal improvements brought about a national road that linked the Potomac River and the Ohio River, and the Lancaster Turnpike linked Philadelphia with the Ohio River. However, they had few effects because of the high costs.

It was really the steamboat that opened the West to commercial agriculture. It was invented by Robert Fulton. The Washington reached Louisville, Kentucky from New Orleans in 25 days. It made two-way traffic on the Mississippi River possible, and it made the West into a busy commercial region.

The Erie Canal (aka "Clinton's Ditch") was built by New York governor DeWitt Clinton. It provided a water route between the Northwest and New York City. It also lowered the cost of transporting farm produce and generated more profit. It was an immense success. The Erie Canal encouraged other states to join the canal boom:

-1817 canal mileage was fewer than 100 miles
-1840 canal mileage was 3,300 miles.

Railroads

A national system with 5000 miles of rail developed in the 1840s in the United States. A national system was a continuous integrated system that created massive links between East and Northwest. Railroads soon rendered canals obsolete.

Time and Money

The Transportation Revolution reduced the time and money it took to move goods. Turnpikes cut the cost of wagon transport, and steamboat cut the river travel to one-third of a cent.The price of moving goods dropped from 1815 to 1860 by 95%.

There was a major improvement in speed. In the 1840s, travel time from Cincinnati to New York took 18-20 days, but by 1852, travel time from Cincinnati to New York took 6-8 days. Improvements like these made a national market economy possible.

Market Revolution

The Market Revolution was made possible in the 1840s by improved transportation. Foreign trade had driven American economic growth up until 1815.

1815 Business:
-U.S. exports- $52.6 million
-U.S. imports- $113 million

1860 Business:
-U.S. exports- $333.6 million
-U.S. imports- $353.6 million

Before 1815, U.S. exports involved 15% of the total national product.
By 1830, however, U.S. exports involved 6% of total national product.

This was because after 1815, U.S. developed self-sustaining domestic markets for farm produce & manufactured goods. The great engine of American economic growth no longer depended on the old colonial relationship with Europe, but now on a burgeoning internal market.

The whole political purpose of Henry Clay's American System was to transcend sectionalism and create a unified United States. Unfortunately, the Market Revolution had not accomplished this by 1840. In fact, it had produced greater results within regions than between them. For example, the Erie Canal's trade, until 1840, was mostly within New York. Therefore the Market Revolution (before 1840) was more of a regional thing--as opposed to a interregional affair.

The new transport network was mostly responsible for turning the economy into a Market Revolution. Canals and roads from New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore became the favored passage west for eastern commodities.

The result for the Ohio-Mississippi River System was the amount of goods it carried vastly increased (although this increase was a shrinking share of the expanded total) and the new national market between the West and the East was excluding the South.

From Yeoman to Businessman

There was a transformation of rural outwork; farmers became consumers. Southerners began moving north of the Ohio River--into a territory that banned slavery, which they banned because it blocked opportunites for poor whites who could not compete with large plantation owners.

Farming became easier with new technology

The standard harvesting tool of the 1830s was the cast-iron plow, but it was replaced by the McCormick reaper. Also, Johnny Chapman (aka "Johnny Appleseed") planted apple trees. It's relevant because it took place in the same time period. And it's in my notes.

The Market Revolution transformed 18th century households into 19th century homes. Between 1800 and 1850, people began to limit the family size. Neighborhoods became landscapes of privacy.

Industrial Revolution

The Jeffersonians wanted America to remain rural, but the Federalists argued that America must produce its own manufactured goods.

The American textile industry originated from industrial espionage (spying) and was powered by water. It was invented in Britain at first by Richard Arkwright, and brought to New England by Samuel Slater.

Samuel Slater was a British merchant who left Britain and came to the U.S. and he was the first to build the American Arkwright spinning mill in 1790 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.

He was also responsible for the Rhode Island System (The Family System). His factories (an idea he copied from Arkwright) consisted of villages built in the countryside, and it employed the entire village. It involved the process of producing finished cloth from raw cotton.

Another factory system was introduced by Francis Cabot Lowell, a Bostonian. He toured in English factory districts in 1811 to spy on them because Britain had the greatest textile industries in the world at the time, and he wanted to make a profit (industrial espionage). He took notes (and was disgusted by the squalor the English textile towns), and he built his first mill in Waltham, Massachusetts. He eventually expanded this system to Lowell, Lawrence, and other cities.

The Waltham System (or the Lowell System) differed from the Rhode Island System because it was heavily capitalized and fully mechanized. They turned raw cotton into finished cloth and employed young single women from the country. The women were boarded in company boardinghouses and lived by enforced rules of conduct, on and off duty. They became independent, wage-earning women.

The Market Revolution hit American cities with particular force, and the richest men were seaport merchants.

There was also a rise in New York City's ready-made clothing (before that, people had to buy cloth and sew them into clothes themselves). In 1815, only the wealthy wore tailor-made clothing. However, the creation of the southern and western markets, the availability of cheap manufactured cloth and availability of cheap labor made ready-made clothing affordable.

This transformed New york City into a center of a national market for ready-made clothes (so that's why New York is a fashion capital of the world). Negro cottons were graceless, hastily assembled clothes slaves wore, dungarees and work shirts were for western farmers, inexpensive clothing were for urban workers, and fancy ready-made clothing were for middle-class.

In 1860, women in the clothing trade workforce was 25000; the percentage of women was 25% and the percentage of women working in the clothing trade was 67%.

U.S. History

Government and Markets

The 14th Congress was overwhemingly made up of Jeffersonian Republicans, but it reversed many of the positions taken by Jefferson's old party.

For example:

-It chartered a national bank (which Jefferson was completely against)
-It enacted a protective tariff
-It debated building a national system of roads & canals

I think I hear Jefferson rolling in his grave right now.

Republicans had (as late as 1811) viewed such programs as heresy, but by 1815, the had come to accept it as orthodox. (Oh, the hypocrisy...)

As the Republicans struggled with their national identities (like teenagers at the peak of puberty) the War of 1812 waged, during which the United States demonstrated:

-It was unable to coordinate a fiscal & military effort
-Its reliance on foreign trade made the U.S. dependent on Europe
-It must abandon Jefferson's export oriented agrarianism
-It must encourage national independence through susidies through commerce & manufactures

The American System

Henry Clay, a war hawk (a party in Congress who supported the 1812 War efforts), headed the drive for neo-Federalist program. He advocated three things in the American system:

-Protective tariffs (So there was actually reason behind taxes at one point)
-Internal improvement (Roads, canals, railroads, etc.)
-National bank

Clay argued that the American system would foster national economic growth and sectional interdependence between geographical sections, which would result in a happy & healthy republic.

The second Bank of the United States was charted by Congress in 1816, headquatered in Philadelphia, and it could establish branches wherever it saw fit.

The federal government agreed to deposit its funds in the national bank, to accept the Bank's notes as payment, and to by 20% of the Bank's stock. It became more powerful than the Bank that was rejected as unconstitutional in 1811.

Two major things that convinced Republicans in favor a national bank:

-The nation needed a national currency
-The nation needed a centralized control of money & credit

The alternative was state banks, which would issue unregulated and inflated notes, which would throw the postwar economy into chaos.

The constitutionality of the bank was not discussed (the power of ignorance is a powerful tool in politics). The Bank was empowered to be the sole institution to do business throughout the U.S. The notes issued by the Bank was the first semblance of national currency, which it could regulate.

The first overtly protective tariff was passed in 1816, shepherded by Henry Clay and John Calhoun. It raised tariffs an average of 25%, and protected the nation's infant industries. It did so at the expense of foreign trade & American producers (I'll just assume they knew what they were doing).

Wartime difficulties helped because America could not depend on imported manufactures during war, and Congress encouraged domestic manufactures.

The protective tariffs were strongly supported in the Northeast and the West, and got just enough support from the South to pass. It established once and for all the principle of protectionism.

Internal improvements had a harder time winning approval. (Hint: it had something to do with money. Surprise, surprise.)

Wartime British blockade that hampered coastal shipping encouraged internal improvements because it made Americans dependent on obsolete interior roads and caused a desire of an efficient transportation network.

Some wanted a National road linking Chesapeake with trans-Appalachian West, others wanted an inland canal system linking northern & southern coastal states, and some wanted a federal turnpike linking Maine & Georgia.

But because of funding, the improvements was doubtful of constitutionality (the federal government didn't want to pay for something only beneficial to certain states, very much like the way parents refuse to blatantly favor one child), so it was only partially supported by Presidents Madison & Monroe. The government wanted a more constitutional amendment.

Therefore, the state governments took care of the funding for internal improvements. It reflected the designs of the most ambitious states. The most spectacular accomplishment is New York's Erie Canal, challenged by Pennsylvania's and Ohio's canal systems. Most internal improvements were built by corporations charted by canals & railroads.

This commitment to a more efficient transportation network produced the market economy. States provided funding that attracted private investors.

Markets and Law

The American revolution replaced British courts with national and state legal systems, which were based on English common law and made legal action accessible to most white males.

Most of the disputes generated by the transition to a market society ended up in court. The courts removed social conflicts from the public arena and into a peaceful courtroom (No such thing). The result was a promotion of:

-Entrepreneurial use of private property
-Sanctity of contracts
-Right to do business shielded from neighborhood restraints
-Right to do business shielded from the tumult of democratic politics

The central character was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court: John Marshall. He presided over the Court from 1816 onwards. He used the Court as a conservative hedge against the excesses of democratically elected legislatures, and he protected the independence of courts. Marshall also created the court's right of review legislation, encouraged business, and strengthened national government at the expense of the states.

Marshall protected contracts and charters from state legislatures:

-DARTMOUTH VS WOODWARD (1816)

Dartmouth defended its royal charter of the 1760s from the changes introduced by a Republican legislation. The Republicans wanted to change it from a bastion of Federalism to a state college. Dartmouth was defended by Daniel Webster, who convinced Marshall to rule that state legislation could not alter corporate charter. This decision also protected all business ventures that had privileges under corporate charters, which had been granted by state governments, but could not be regulated by states once granted. Thus, these corporate charters acquired the legal status of contracts and beyond the reach of democratic politics.

-MUCCULLOCH VS MARYLAND (1816)

The state of Maryland had Jeffersonian doubts about the constitutionality of the Bank of U.S. so they tried to tax the Baltimore branch of the Bank, which then challenged Maryland's right to do so. Marshall decided in the favor of the Bank. He cited the Constitution's granting to the federal government of implied powers, which included the power to establish the Bank. So in laymen's terms, Maryland was not allowed to tax the Bank or any other federal agency because "the power to tax implies the power to destroy." This was an explicit blow against Jeffersonian strict constitution for Marshall, who insisted that the federal government was not dependent on the states. However, many Southerners believed that the Founders had intended the opposite. (This is why legal jargon is so overrated--who cares if it sounds good if no one understood it!)

-GIBBONS VS OGDEN (1824)

Marshall breaks a New York state-granted steamship monopoly; he argued that the monopoly interfered with federal jurisdiction over interstate commerce. This decision empowered the federal government over state government just like the aforementioned cases. Also, this decision encouraged private entrepreneuralism.

Marshall supported the American System and assumed that a natural link existed between the federal government and a market society.

State Courts

The state courts worked profound transformation of American law. They gave businessmen the right to do business even when they inflicted damage on neighbors. They ruled that businessmen had the right to develop property for business purposes and that railroads could build despite townspeople's complaints and protests. They believed "private injury and personal damage" must be expected and business uses of private property demanded legal protection.

U.S. History

Provincial America

British people have a reputation of being snooty…and vain. With really cool accents. So apparently nothing’s changed since the 1700’s.

In America during the 18th century, the colonies were growing quickly. This led to a dilemma. The British had to make sure they were Anglicizing properly (a big fancy word that means being snooty people with really cool accents). They wanted the colonists to be completely English and not forget their roots.

Anglicizing meant that the wealthy colonists copied British styles (because apparently—only the rich could afford to be British). This included clothes, fashion, and even houses. For example Lawrence Washington (ancestor of good ol’ George) was a successful planter and built a fancy home on a hill named Mount Vernon—the house, not the hill.

Americans also put religion as a top priority (I wonder what that was like…) and demanded clergymen who were educated at Cambridge or Oxford in England. I guess it must have hard to find adequate ministers in the unsettled wild back then. Anyway, pretty soon the demand surpassed the supply, so the people of the north were forced to build schools to educate itself. The south—not so much.

Another part of colonial America was that the “Gentlemen” dominated local politics. They rode around the countryside, telling people who to vote for. A gentleman was classified as someone who didn’t do manual labor. If that’s the case gentility is definitely NOT something we lack nowadays.

There was a European double-standard:

1.) Married woman in an affair was harshly punished. Not just punished but harshly so—which is doubly distressing.
2.) Married man in an affair was not. Some even laughed it off—didn’t really care.

I always knew Europeans were to blame for this, ladies. Before Anglicization, there was never any double standard because the Puritans were so…pure. (Scarlet Letter, anyone?)
Other than geography, the North and South also differed in other ways.

South Carolina’s population was 70% slaves, and therefore, they were paranoid of a slave revolt. They also had the richest group in British North America—rice planters. (What is this? China?) Not to mention 3 major crops: tobacco, indigo, and wheat—NOT COTTON! (Yet.)
Slaves were the most expensive thing in southern economy. They organized the workers into task system which recognized human’s self-motivation: they required slaves to do and finish a certain amount of work before they can have free time and do nonslave-ish things. (Sounds like kindergarten. Except more brutal.) Slave owners also wanted more slave babies—so they can grow up and do slave-ish things. And make them rich. So the owners encouraged sex among the slaves. Sometimes the owners had huge harems of slave women. (DOUBLE STANDARD!)
The Middle Colonies (or the Mid-Atlantic colonies, if you prefer) included New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. They were considered the “bread-basket” meaning they had many good farms that produced a lot of the food. The Quakers that ran Pennsylvania were pacifists (peacemakers—not the kind you give to babies when they start teething). Scots-Irish colonists were the lowest on the social hierarchy; they were the burnouts in high school. Because of this, the Quakers settled the Scots-Irish in the backcountry, so they would suffer most of the hostile Indian attacks, but what they did not expect was that the Scots-Irish developed an offensive attack, and they were kicked out of Pennsylvania to Georgia.

Now, the New England colonies had the worst economic growth caused by ruined crops which also resulted in poverty. They had to create new ideas to come up with money for the economy, so they began to harvest lumber, invested in shipbuilding, cod-fishing (very profitable), and the colonists learned whaling from the Indians. Whaling became a major industry. They also traded with the French, the archenemy of Britain—but hey, beggars can’t be choosers. They obtained French molasses from the Caribbean islands and began making rum. This, in turn, upset England, who passed the Molasses Act of 1733.

The Molasses Act of 1733 raised taxes on French molasses to make it less profitable. This did practically nothing; it only served to encourage smuggling and bribing. (Nice to know what America is really based on)

Another thing Britain did to upset the colonies was they banned fiat money, which is paper money that has no value except that the government promised it was an acceptable payment for taxes. Britain wanted real gold and silver or specie.

On the job market of colonial America there were some changes being made. Doctors became more respectable; they were being college trained now. Before, college wasn’t necessary to become a doctor. Now imagine a world where anyone could be a doctor—even that hobo under the bridge. You really didn’t want to get sick then. Anyways, Benjamin Rush was a doctor and leader (a double threat); he was the one who came up with the idea of a smallpox vaccine. And it worked! Gin was also a drug of choice for people back then: it was cheap and powerful. Kind of like the king…

A dominant philosophy at the time was the Enlightenment; it was the idea that with enough education, man can be perfected. So education was becoming more and more important, and another Benjamin—Franklin this time—supported it.

Leaders of the Enlightenment created a colony for the poor—Georgia. It was a place for “worthy poor.” And to be honest—it was an idealistic plan. They were planning to give land away! Georgia also banned all alcoholic beverages and slavery, and they wanted to produce silk. (They probably also wanted to build the houses out of marshmellows and end world hunger too—such ambitious people) None of which worked.

There was also the Great Awakening: a massive Christian revival in the colonies and in England. This shattered the unity of old denominations (congregational denominations) and turned to newer denominations, which grew as a result. The most important were:

1. Baptists – They multiplied rapidly
2. Methodists – They also grew quickly
3. Presbyterians – They became more and more important.
They were all considered poor people churches.

New Protestant colleges were founded, unifying the American colonies, and they began to think as a unit. (Thanks to the Enlightenment)

There several popular ministers, the rock stars of their time.
Gilbert Tennent preached “The Dangers of an Unconverted Ministry” in 1740.
Jonathan Edwards was delivered the “Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God” in 1737, but his most famous was probably “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.”

John and Charles Wesley were brothers and founders of the Methodist denomination. John was the preacher and Charles was a singer. They created the Holy Club—created for spiritual growth.

George Whitfield, a friend of the Wesley duo, was an Oxford student and probably the most popular preacher in America.

Meanwhile, there was also political culture in the colonies. People in England were divided between two parties: the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs were for “country” and the Tories were for “court” (king and all that). This divided the colonies a bit too: Jefferson was a Whig and Hamilton a Tory.

Most colonies were ruled by a royal government directly under the king, paid by the king, allegiance to the king (more like the money).

U.S. History

Political Culture in the Colonies

A. Introduction
1. In politics, the colonies became more like Britain during the 18th century
2. Colonists knew they needed British protection
3. Colonists admired Britain's parliamentary system
4. Colonists were more independent than their British counterparts
5. Colonists believed that because they were British they were free; they too had a mixed constitution that united monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy in perfect balance
6. By 1720, every colony (except Connecticut and Rhode Island) had three things
a. An appointed governor
b. A council
c. An elective assembly
7. Each stood for something
a. The governor stood for monarchy
b. The council stood for aristocracy
c. The elective assembly stood for democracy; they played an active legislative role
B. The Rise of the Assembly and the Governor
1. The right to vote was more widely shared than in England
a. Men disenfranchised in England was 2/3 adult males
b. Disenfranchised lost the right to vote
2. In the American colonies, 3/4 of free white males could vote
3. Enfranchised males could acquire property
4. The problem: the frequency of elections varied
5. The assembly or the lower house
a. It usually initiated major bills
b. The rise of the assembly was a major political fact of the era
c. It made most of its gains at the expense of the council
d. They usually clashed with the royal governors
e. Successful governors won over the assembly through persuasion or patronage
f. Early conflicts tended to be legalistic
g. Latter conflicts often pitted an aggrieved minority against governor and assembly
C. "Country" Constitutions
1. The common assumption of most southern colonies: "country" principles of British opposition was acceptable to both governor and assembly
a. Assemblies would not be manipulated through a governor's patronage
b. Governors who had a permanent salary would not be coerced.
c. Politics of harmony was a system of ritualized mutual flattery
d. Governors and assemblies pursued common good in an atmosphere free of rancor and corruption
D. "Court" Constitutions
1. The diverse northern colonies often produced political factions

The Renewal of Imperial Conflict

A. Introduction

1. 1739-1763 was a new era of imperial war

2. Participants were the British colonies, New Spain, New France, and Indians

3. Results in 1763

a. France expelled from North America

b. Britian controlled North America east of the Mississippi

c. Spain controlled land west of the Mississippi

B. Challenges to the French power

1. The French tried to strengthen position in North America

a. They built the fortress Louisbourg (the continent's most formidable fortress) on Cape Breton Island

b. They built Fort St. Frederic (Crown Point) on Lake Champlain

c. They had posts on the Great Lakes (Detroit): Fort Frontenac, Michilimackinac, and Detroit

d. They founded in 1722 New Orleans (Louisiana's capital)

2. French power continued to weaken

a. The Indians traded with British because British goods were cheaper

b. The policy that did serious damage to teh French: they encouraged hostilities between Indian nations (largely because they could not afford enough gifts to hold alliance for both nations)

c. Result for France: they lost prestige and influence

C. The Danger of Slave Revolts

1. The Spanish colony in East Texas called Los Adaes

a. They were dependent on the French trade for supplies and food

b. The survivors fled west to San Antonio

2. The Spanish in Florida

a. They promised freedom to slaves (Indians and Africans)
b. They established the town of Mose

i. Led by African named Francisco Menendez, who escaped from slavery, fought with the Yamasees against South Carolina and fled to Florida only to be enslaved again; he rose to rank of militia captain and won his freedom and took charge of Mose in 1738 and made it the first community of free blacks in the U.S.

ii. Mose acted as a magnet for Carolina slaves

3. The Stono Rebellion in South Carolina (Sept. 9, 1739)

a. The most violent slave revolt in history of the 13 colonies

b. The revolt failed and most of the rebels were killed and never reached Florida

4. The War of Jenkin's Ear (1739)

a. War between Britain and Spain

b. American survivor Lawrence Washington

i. He admired his commander Edward Vernon

ii. He named his plantation after him: Mount Vernon

c. Patriotic fervor produced two famous songs: "God Save the King" and "Rule Britannia"

5. James Oglethorpe (South Carolina's governor)

a. He sent a disturbing report

i. Spain is trying to start slave uprisings

ii. Spain is sending priests to intermingle with black conspirators to destroy British fortifications

6. The New York Conspiracy Trials (1741)

a. 1712: Slave revolt where slaves set barn on fire and shot 15 settlers, killing 9 of them; 21 slaves were executed

b. New York slave population of 2,000 was the largest concentration of blacks in British North America outside of Charleston

i. A series of suspicious fires (probably a cover for interracial ring of larceny)

ii. Rumor of "popish" plot to murder the city's whites, free slaves

iii. News from Georgia arrive of slave conspiracy and 19 slaves are hanged, 13 are burned alive and 70 are banished to the West Indies

7. The 1742 planned invasion of Georgia and South Carolina by the Spanish

a. King Philip V of Spain sent 36 ships and 2,000 soldiers from Cuba

b. Met 900 Men led by Oglethorpe on St. Simon's Island

c. Invasion: After 2 losses, Spanish morale collapses; Oglethorpe tricks the Spanish into believing that a British deserter who tipped them off was actually a trap and the Spanish departed

D. France vs. Britain: King George's War

1. In 1744, France joins Spain in its war against Britain

a. The fall of the French fortress: Louisbourg fell on June 16, 1745

i. Untrained militia from New England

ii. Captured the outer batteries and guns and then turned the guns on the fortress walls

iii. It worked, but hundreds of volunteers died of various afflictions, plans to attack Quebec came to nothing because there was no British fleet; there were French and Indian raiders; farmers rioted against high taxes and attempts at drafting sailors angered mobs and British had to return Louisbourg to France under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended war in 1748

E. The Impending Storm

1. Result of King George's War for Britain

a. The frontier of British settlement: war had driven them back

b. Veterans of teh war were given land grants

c. Postwar expansion alarmed the Indians and the French

d. The expansionist thrust pitted colony against colony; settlers against the Indians; and the British against the French

2. The Virginians

a. The Indians called them "long knives" and were particularly aggressive

b. They organized the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of settling the Ohio Valley

c. The first outpost was at the place where Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers met to form the Ohio River (modern day Pittsburg)

d. Surveyor was George Washington

U.S. History

"Provincial America and the Struggle for a Continent"

Expansion vs. Anglicization

A. Introduction
1. 18th century Americans
a. Sought to emulate their homeland
b. English institutions and material goods began to reappear
c. After 1740 imports of British goods grew spectacularly
d. Virginia planters erected "big houses"
e. Thomas Hancock (merchant) built a stylish residence on Boston's Beacon Hill; it was later passed onto his newphew John
f. Newspapers and learned professions based on English models proliferated
g. Colonial seaports resembled Bristol and other English provincial cities
2. America's populations
a. Colonial institutions could not meet colonial needs unless it continued to grow
b. Unrelenting contest between pace of raw expansion and newer, anglicizing tendencies
c. Example:
i. 1700: Oxford and Cambridge managed to fill colonies' needs for Angelican clergyman by sending over graduates who were unable to find parishes at home.
ii. By 1750: Colonial demand exceeded what schools could supply and colonies tried to attract Scottish and Irish clergymen
d. Northern colonies founded own colleges and trained their own craftsmen
e. Lesson for colonies: they learned to do for themselves what Britain had to do for the south
3. Change occurring during prolonged periods of war
a. War interrupted expansion
b. Peace brought with it a more frantic pace of expansion
c. Mid-century wars were becoming titanic struggle for control of North America
d. Amerindians realized British expansion meant unrelenting retreat for them
B. Threats to Householder Autonomy
1. Some colonial families acquired more prestige than others
2. Status of "Gentlemen" was less rigid in the colonies than in England
a. They performed no manual labor
b. They began to dominate public life
3. Before 1700 ordinary farmers and small planters sat in colonial assemblies
a. 1700's: colonial assemblies grew much more slowly than overall population
b. Therefore, assemblymen were from higher social status
c. Colonial voters remained independent
4. By 1750 patterns of dependency emerge
a. Younger sons had to look west for an inheritance
b. Families could no longer satisfy ambitions of all their children
c. Tenant farmers were given a small patch of land on which they could build a cottage and raise some food; In New York, they had to accept higher rents and shorter leases
d. Families unable to provid for all their children reverted to English social norms
i. Sons were favored over daughters unless daughters could be married off to a wealthy suitor
ii. Eldest sons were favored over younger ones
iii. Younger sons took up a trade or headed for the frontier
iv. They learned trades in order to sustain household autonomy
v. Goal of independence exercised great power but was under siege and fear of the loss of independence energized westward movement
C. Anglicizing the Role of Women
1. Dowry was usually in cash or goods--not land
2. English Common Law's Doctrine of Coverture states women could not make a contract
3. Husbands made all legally binding decisions
4. Dower rights usually one-third of estate was left to wives (later inherited by children)
5. Double standard of sexual behavior punished women for indiscretions but tolerated male infractions
D. Introduction
1. Peace: After 1715, was the longest era of peace since European arrival
2. War had emptied borderlands of most of their inhabitants
3. People poured into these areas without provoking strong Indian nations of the interior between 1715-1750
4. Colonies fitted into distinct regions--only New Englanders had acquired a self-conscious sense of regional identity before independence
E. Emergence of the Old South
1. Postwar expansion was driven by renewed immigration, free and unfree
a. After 1730, the influx of people became enormous
b. 1730 population: about 630,000 settlers and slaves lived in mainland colonies
c. 1775 population: another 248,000 Africans & 284,000 Europeans landed--including 50,000 British convicts
d. 90% of all slaves went to southern colonies
2. Massive influx of slaves created Old South
a. Society of wealthy, slaveholding planters, a larger class of small planters and thousands of slaves
b. Arrival of slaves transformed social structure of southern colonies
c. VA House of Burgess in 1700 included most members who were small planters who raised tobacco with a few indentured servents and perhaps a slave or two
d. Typical Burgesses after 1730 were great planters with at least 20 slaves
3. Upper South slavery
a. Slaves organized into gangs who were supervised closely
b. They worked all day, weather permitting
c. 10% of the slaves were trained as blacksmiths, carpenters, coopers or other skilled craftsmen
d. Paternalistic slave owners encourage family life among workers
4. Lower South Slavery
a. People contracted malaria, which is nonfatal, but left its victims vulnerable to other diseases
b. Africans were resistant to malaria
c. Slave owners showed no inclination to venture near the rice fields
d. Carolina planters were less paternalistic
e. The task system required slaves to fulfill their daily chores, but allowed them time to themselves after they've completed their tasks
f. Rice crop profits condemned slaves to montonous, unpleasant labor in swamps
g. Rice culture left slaves with low rates of reproduction
h. Gullah was a pidgin language or a simple, secondary language
i. Began with few phrases common to many west African languages
ii. Added English words
iii. Modern Black English developed from Gullah
iv. By 1776m the American south was becoming the world's only self-sustaining slave society
5. Slavery was maintained by brute force
a. Whippings were frequent and masters determined the number of stripes
b. Extreme cruelty was rare
c. Random acts of violence was common (and unpredictable)
6. Southern colonies prospered by exchanging staple crops for British imports
a. By 1750: trade was taken over by Scots
b. Glasgow was the leading tobacco port of the Atlantic
c. Inspection guaranteed high-quality leaf
d. Britain and France's contract opened up a vast continental market for Chesapeake planters
e. Second staple crop was indigo, a dye for textile
f. North Carolina sold naval stores (pitch, resin, turpentine) to British shipbuilders
g. Second crop for Chesapeake planters was wheat
h. New Chesapeake towns were created with harvesting of wheat--people need mills, barrels, and ships
i. Shipbuilding was closely tied to export of wheat and became important Chesapeake industry.

U.S. History

Chapter 3 continued

A. The Glorious Revolution
1. Introduction
a. James II proclaimed toleration for Protestants and Catholics
b. Louis XIV who prosecuted Huguenots (French Protestants), revoked Edict of Nantes, which granted toleration to Protestants
c. 160,000 Huguenots fled--many went to England, several went to English colonies
d. William of Orange was a stadholder (governor) of Netherlands and most prominent Protestant soldier in Europe
e. Mary was James's older Protestant daughter who married William of Orange
f. William III and Mary II were named joint sovereigns after James fled to France
g. Toleration Act gave Protestant dissenters the right to worship freely
h. Declaration of Rights guaranteed Protestant succession and condemned as illegal many of the acts of James II
i. Glorious Revolution brought England and Netherlands into war against Louis XIV who supported James
2. The Glorious Revolution in America
a. On April 18-19, 1689 the Boston militia overthrew Andros, who attempted to suppress news of William's landing in England
b. A global Popish plot was to undermine Protestant societies
c. The other New England Colonies followed Massachusetts and resumed old charter government
d. Fort James was taken by New York City militia at southern tip of Manhattan and was renamed Fort William
e. Francis Nicholson was a lieutenant governor in New York under Andros who refused to proclaim William and Mary as sovereigns without direct orders from England; he later sailed for home
f. Jacob Leisler was a Dutch leader who dreaded conquest by Catholics from New France and acted like a Dutch stadholder in a nominally English colony--military defense was his highest priority
g. In Maryland Protestants overthrew Lord Baltimore's Catholic government in 1689 and Maryland governor refused to proclaim William and Mary
3. The English Response
a. The Maryland Rebels won royal government they requested and established Angelican church
b. In New York Leislerians suffered defeat as enemies manipulated Dutch king of England into undermining Dutch supporters in New York
i. Henry Sloughter was a new governor who named Anti-Leislerians to his council and arrested Leisler and his son-in-law in 1691
ii. Charter of Liberties (1683) denied toleration to Catholics; it was later disallowed
iii. Leislerian-Anti-Leislerian struggles characterized New York politics until after 1700
c. Massachusetts:
i. Increase Mather was the colony's agent in London and failed to persuade Parliament to restore Charter of 1629
ii. The 1691 Charter gave the crown power to appoint governors, judicial appeals, tolerated Protestants, and based voting rights on property qualifications and not religion
d. The Salem Witch Trials
i. Samuel Parris was the reverend and village ministerwhose nieces were "victims" of witchcraft
ii. The girls accused neighbors (most were old women who opposed Parris's ministry)
iii. New England judges were those who compromised Puritanism through service of Dominion of New England
iv. The court hanged 19 people
v. These trials were ended when the girls accused the governor's wife
4. The Completion Empire
a. The Glorious Revolution killed absolutism in England
b. It guaranteed royal government would be representative government in colonies
c. Both Crown and colonists took for granted that any colony settled by English got to elect assembly to vote on taxes and consent to local laws
d. Royal government soon became normal after New Jersey proprietors surrendered powers in 1702
e. The Navigation Act of 1696 plugged in earlier loopholes and extended to America the English system of vice admiralty courts
f. Vice admiralty courts dispensed quick justices without juries
g. The Board of Trade replaced Lords of Trade in 1696 (purely advisory)
h. John Locke was an English philosopher and economist, one of the board's first members
i. The Act of Union merged Scotland and England into single kingdom (Great Britain)
i. Placed Scotland inside Navigation Act System
ii. Legalized Scottish participation in tobacco trade
iii. Opened to ambitious Scots numerous colonial offices
iv. The tobacco trade built Glasgow
5. Imperial Federalism
a. Transformations between 1689-1707 defined structure of British Empire before American Revolution
b. Woolens Act of 1699 was designed to protect English woolens industry from Irish and others; it did not prohibit woolens manufacture in the colonies--only its export
c. The Hat Act 1732 limited apprentices or slaves a colonial hatter could keep
d. Parliament's policies on oceanic trade were enforceable
e. Inland trade: compliance to policies were minimal to nonexistant
f. The Iron Act of 1750 prohibited erection of certain kinds of new iron mills
g. De facto federalism was a system no one could quite explain or justify; Parliament exercised limited powers and colonies controlled the rest
6. The Mixed and Balanced Constitution
a. The Glorious Revolution transformed British politics and affected colonies after 1700
b. The British constitution was remarkably stable and made ministers legally responsible for their actions
c. James Harrington was a republican thinker
d. Free societies degenerate into tyrannies
e. England had defied history
f. The explanation lay in England's "mixed and balanced" constitution
g. The underlying drama was the struggle of power against liberty
h. Power had to be controlled or liberty lost
i. The real danger was corruption
j. Wars with France aroused acute constitutional anxieties
k. To support Britain's growing power, the kingdom created a funded national debt for the first time; the state agreed to pay interest due to its creditors ahead of all other obligations
l. This gave Britain enormous borrowing power
m. The bank of England facilitate state finances
n. Huge new financial resources vastly increased patronage
o. The Court favored policies that strengthened war-making capabilities
p. The Country stood for liberty
q. Both parties (Whigs and Tories) had court and country wings
r. By 1720, the Tories were a country opposition
s. Whigs were strong advocates of court policies of George I
t. Court Whigs emerged victorious
u. Sir Robert Walpole was the prime minister who led whigs to victory
v. Opposition Tory writers included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay, and Henry St. John
w. Radical whigs included John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon
x. Central theme of the opposition was corruption
y. Corruption threatens independence of Parliament and English liberty
z. Debate over liberty reaches America
aa. Especially popular reading was Cato's Letters in the northern colonies
B. An Empire of Settlement: The British Colonies
1. The Engine of British Expansion: the Colonial Household
a. Colonial families rejected the English customs of entail and primogeniture
i. Entail prohibited a landowner, or his heir from dividing (selling) his land or estate during his lifetime
ii. Primogeniture obliged landowners to leave all his land to his eldest surviving son
iii. They failed to structure social relations
iv. Colonial households tried to pass on their status to all sons and provide sufficient dowries to allow daughters to marry into a family of equal status
b. For younger sons the colonies presented a unique opportunity
i. Benjamin Franklin was the youngest son of the youngest son for 5 generations
ii. Autobiography by Benjamin Franklin was colonial America's greatest success story
c. Colonial households "Americanized" during early settlement
d. Settlers accepted temporary dependency among freemen; sons accepted temporary dependency from parents, indentured servants from masters, and apprentices from master craftsman
e. Those who accepted permanent dependency lost the respect of the community
2. The Voluntaristic Ethic and Public Life
a. The quest for independence
b. Military service
i. Only when it suited their future plans
ii. Blind obedience to orders was regarded as slavery
iii. Military service led to land ownership and earlier marriage
3. Three Warring Empires: 1689-1716
a. Four colonial wars between Britain and France
i. King William's War (1689-1697): William Phips of Massachusetts forced Acadia to surrender, but was bluffed into retreating; in the end, the attack on Montreal (France) collapsed
ii. Queen Anne's War (1702-1716)
(a.) Deerfield, Massachusetts: French and Indians destroyed it in winter attack and prisoners were marched to Canada
(b.) John Williams was the pastor of Deerfield
(c.) Eunice Williams was the daughter of John; she was a captive who decided to remain in Canada, eventually converting to Catholicism and marrying an Indian
(d.) Esther Wheelwright was the daughter of a prominent family who also remained in Canada; she converted to Catholicism and became mother superior in a nunnery: Ursuline Order

U.S. History

Chapter 3...

"England Discovers Its Colonies: Empire, Liberty and Expansion"

A. The Atlantic Prism and the Spectrum of Settlement.
1. Diversified populations: hundreds of distinct cultures and languages
2. The American prism: America became a spectrum of settlement; provinces shared common traits
3. The most pronounced differences: life expectancy, sex ratio, and family structure
a. Demographic differences had consequences: old society vs. young society
b. The West Indies already had a large slave majority
c. English settlers had a firm grip on wealth and power.
d. Delaware and Hudson valleys had less Africans
e. Middle Atlantic region was a new ethnic mosaic.
f. New England was the most English of all the colonies
g. New France was as French as New England was English
4. Intensity of religious observance: varied--ranging from irreverence to intense piety
a. 17th century formal education: based on religion--literacy based on the same pattern
b. College of William and Mary: founded in 1693 and provided formal education for Chesapeake settlers.
c. Harvard College: founded in Massachusetts in 1636 for formal education
d. Massachusetts: required every town to have a writing school or grammar school
e. Their purpose: "to frustrate old deluder Satan"
f. Quebec: Jesuits founded a college there; France sent a bishop and established seminary school
g. Established (state) church of the mother country was the legally established church in the West Indies and southern mainland colonies
h. The battle was between the established churches and dissent
i. Toleration claimed victory in New York
j. Pennsylvannia had full religious liberty
k. New England: Old world dissent became New world establishment
5. Forms of government: varied
a. The Parish: took on secular functions like poor relief; there were few in the Middle Atlantic Colonies
b. The County: developed with English conquest of New Netherland in New England
c. Royal governments: in West Indian colonies
d. Proprietary governments: dominated mainland south of New England except Virginia
e. Corporate forms of government: in New England in which all officials were elected--this form survived in Connecticut and Rhode Island
6. Unifying trends
a. Language: London English affected every colony and softened contrasts
b. Warfare: Armies consisted of volunteers, not polished professionals
c. Law: there was an absence of lawyers which made everything simple and uncomplicated; organized legal profession did not emerge until the 18th century
d. Inheritance: women could acquire and inherit property; there was less of primogeniture in which the eldest son receives most of everything
B. the Beginnnings of Empire
1. The Critical 1640s
a. Royal ppower: collapsed in 1640s
b. Colonies demanded and received: elective assemblies
c. The Dutch seized control of: trade in and out of England's West India Chesapeake colonies
d. Result: most sugar and tobacco products were exported to Amsterdam, not London
e. During the English civil wars: there was no effective control over the colonies
f. The Amerindians outnumbered seettlers and were belligerent
g. The English civil wars gave the Amerindians an unique opportunity to resist settlers; civil war disrupted trade with England and threatened to cut off regular supplies of muskets and gunpowder
h. The New England Confederation: a defensive alliance against Indians
i. The English people had little interest in the colonies until 1650
j. After the civil war the extent of Dutch commercial domination was obvious
k. 1650: England discovered their colonies' importance
2. Mercantilism as a Moral Revolution
a. A state's power depended on underlying economy rather than armies
b. Power derived from wealth of a country
c. Wealth required vigorous trade
d. Colonies became essential to trade and wealth
e. States must control commerce of colonies
f. The Dutch favored virtual free trade within Europe
g. England: preferred some kind of state regulation of domestic and imperial economy
C. Indians, Settlers, Upheaval
1. Indian Strategies of Survival
a. Contact with Europeans led to devastating diseases
i. European diseases magnified tribal need for captives
ii. Increased intensity of tribal wars to probably the highest point ever
a. "Mourning Wars" were initiated by a widow, sister or mother of deceased who insisted the men of the tribe take revenge
b. Adult male prisoners were tortured to death in case later they tried to get revenge
c. Women and children were adopted and assimilated into the new tribe
d. Indians of the Five Nations: most were adopted and not native
e. Result: Confederacy remained strong and rivals declined as tribes assimilated into other tribes
iii. European products were new to Indians
a. Price: Indians abandoned traditional skills
b. Dependent on trade with Europeans
iv. Alcohol
a. Indians drank to alter moods and receive visions
b. Drunkennuss became a major--if not intermittent--social problem
v. Staying on good terms with the Indians
a. Pieter Stuyvesant tried to improve relations with New Netherland
b. Edmond Andros was governor (1674-1680) and cultivated friendship of Iroquois league
c. Covenant Chain of Peace: 5 nations agreed to make New York the easternmost nation of link in Covenant Chain of Peace
2. Puritan Indian Missions
a. Indian missionaries in Massachusetts
i. Martha's Vineyard: Thomas Mayhew Sr. and Jr. made serious efforts to convert Indians there
ii. John Eliot tried to make Indian town of Natick into a model mission community
b. Strategies
i. Mayhews: worked with sachems and only challenged powwows (spirit men; faith healers)
ii. Eliot challenged sachems, powwows, tradtional tribal structures and was less successful but more well-known.
c. Praying towns: converting Indian towns
3. Causes of King Philip's War (1675)
a. Indian resistance to Christianity
b. Settler's lust for Indian land
c. Intrusion of settlers' livestock onto Indian territory
d. Fear that Indian way of life was in danger of extinction
4. King Philip's War
a. Metacom (Philip): a sachem of Wampanoags and son of Massasoit
b. Massasoit: celebrated with pilgrims in the 1st Thanksgiving
c. Cause of war: Plymouth executed 3 Wampanoags
d. Reason: They murdered John Sassamon
e. Settlers killed an Indian for looting an abandoned house
f. However the Indians had been acquiring firearms
g. Metacom wins several engagements against the Plymouth militia
h. The Great Swamp Fight of December 1675: a Puritan army attacked Narragansett Fort and killed hundreds of Indians
i. Indians killed 800 settlers and destroyed 2 dozen towns
j. New England refused convict either side
k. Increase Mather was a prominent Boston minister who saw the conflict as God's punishment
l. Quakers were accused of blasphemy and were blamed for the war
m. William Hubbard, another Boston minister, insisted it was a testing period after which saints will win
n. Daniel Gookin, a follower of Eliot, believed the war was a tragedy for both settlers and Indians
o. 1676 the settlers won the war
p. Metacom was killed by Christian Indian Allies along with his war parties
q. Other Indians were sold into slavery
5. Virginia's Indian War
a. Gov. Sir William Berkeley led the colony to victory over Opechancanough
b. The Doegs were dependent Indian nation in Potomac Valley who feuded with a planter
c. The Susquehannocks were Iroquoian speaking Indians with firearms; they occupied land north of the Potomac
d. John Washington (ancestor to George) united Virginia and Maryland forces and besieged a Susquehannock fort
e. Nathaniel Bacon was a plantation owner and he also owned a trading post; after his arrival, he managed an appointment to the council and was one of the ones excluded from Indian trade under Berkeley
6. Bacon's Rebellion
a. Bacon's frontiersmen found and captured Susquehannock with the assistance of other Indians who were later killed)
b. Berkeley outlawed Bacon and dissolved legislature
c. The 1661 Assembly: general election and discussed issues
d. Bacon forced Berkeley to commission him general of volunteers and compelled legislature to authorize another expedition against Indians
e. Royal government collapsed and settlers plundered Indians and other colonists
f. Bacon's Rebellion was the largest upheaval in American colonies before 1775
g. Berkeley regained control of Virginia
D. Crisis in England and the Redefinition of Empire
1. Introduction
a. Bacon's rebellion triggered political crisis in England; little tobacco was produced during the uprising and revenues dropped
b. Charles II did not have a legitimate heir and forced to name his brother heir to the throne
c. James, duke of York was Charles's brother, a Catholic
d. New House of Commons was terrfied by the concept of a Catholic king (England was Protestant)
2. The Popish Plot, Exclusion Crisis and the Rise of Party
a. The Popish Plot: kill Charles and bring James to power
b. Lord Shaftesburty opposed James in favor of his Protestant daughters
c. Whigs were followers of Shaftesbury and the name came from a group of religious extremists who wanted to assassinate both Charles and James
d. Tories were Charles's courtiers; it's a term for Irish Catholics who murdered Protestant landlords
e. Court forces (Tories) favored legitimate succession, a standing army, revenue, and the Angelican church and an absolute monarchy
f. Country opposition (Whigs) favored exclusion of James, a decentralized militia, monarchy with parliament, and they tolerated Protestants
g. James fled to Scotland in virtual exile
h. Charles got financial support from King Louis XIV of France and dissolved parliament in 1681 and ruled without one in the last 4 years of his reign
3. The Lords of Trade
a. English politics had profound impact on the colonies
b. The Duke of York was the most powerful shaper of imperial policy after the third Anglo-Dutch War
c. The Lords Committee of Trade and Plantations (Lords of Trade) enforced Navigation Acts and administered the colonies
d. The West Indies was the object of most new policies
e. Barbados, Jamaica and the Leeward Islands: king appointed governor for each colony and settlers elected assembly
f. The Privy Council heard appeals from colonial courts and disallowed colonial legislation after governor approved it
g. Colonists' viewpoitn: they believed they had rights to constitutional rule
h. Royal instructions NEVER acquired force of law
i. Colonial claims to self-rule strengthened because colonies paid cost of its own government
j. Compromise of 1681: Jamaica could initiate and amend legislation in turn for agreeing to permanent revenue
k. King Philip's (Metacom's) War and Bacon's Rebellion made these reforms urgent
l. Edward Randolph, a customs officer, recommended the colony's charter be revoked
m. Lords of Trade possessed no effective punishments for violators
n. The Jamaica model assumed each governor would assemble on occassion
4. The Dominion of New England
a. Absolutist New York: a new model for reorganizing New England
b. The New York Charter of Liberties (1683): the assembly was abolished but still produced revenue
c. Sir Edmund Andros, a autocratic governor of New York who governed through appointive council and superior court without assembly, took over new government called Dominion of New England
d. Andro's rigorous enforcement of Navigation Acts alienated merchants and enraged the country
e. Their rights as Englishmen was considered more than their liberties as Puritans

Spanish Review

Verbos Reflexivos (Reflexive Verbs)

1. Lavarse - To wash oneself


2. Cepillarse los dientes - To brush one's teeth


3. Vestirse - To dress oneself


4. Cortarse - To cut oneself


5. Despertarse - To wake oneself up


6. Acostarse - To go to bed


7. Levantarse - To get up


8. Peinarse - To comb oneself

World History

Reserved!

Chemistry

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

The Nucleus
A. Introduction
1. Atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons which are collectively called nucleons.
2. In nuclear chemistry, an atom is referred to as a nuclide, and is identified by the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
3. Nuclides can be represented in two ways.

B. Mass Defect and Nuclear Stability
1. The measured mass of an atom is less than the calculated mass.
2. The mass defect is the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons and electrons.
3. The mass defect is caused by the conversion of mass to energy upon formation of the nucleus

C. Nucleons and Nuclear Stability
1. The stable nuclei cluster over a range of neutron-proton ratios is referred to as the band of stability
a. For atoms having low atomic numbers, the most stable nuclei are those with a neutron-proton ratio of approximately 1:1.
b. At higher atomic numbers, the stable neutron-proton ratio increases to about 1.5:1. More neutrons are required to increase teh nuclear force and stabilize the nucleus
c. Beyond the atomic number 83, bismuth, the repulsive force of the protons is so great that no stable nuclides exist.
2. Stable nuclei tend to have even numbers of nucleons. This indicates that the stability of a nucleus is greatest when nucleons, like electrons are paired.

D. Nuclear Reactions
1. Unstable nuclei undergo spontaneous changes that change their number of protons and neutrons. In this process they give off large amounts of energy and increase their stability.
2. A nuclear reaction is a reaction that affects the nucleus of an atom. In equations representing nuclear reactions, the total of the atomic number must be equal on both sides of the equation.
3. When the atomic number changes, the identity of teh element changes.
4. A transmutation is a change in the identity of a nucleus as a result of a change in teh number of its protons.

E. Radioactive Decay
1. Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus into a slightly lighter nucleus, accompanied by emission of particles, electromagnetic radiation, or both.
2. Alpha emission is restricted almost entirely to very heavy nuclei, which reduces its penetrating power (more mass=>less penetrating power).
3. Elements above the band of stability are unstable because they have too many neutrons. To decrease the number of neutrons, a neutron can be converted into a proton and an electron.
4. A beta particle is an electron emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay.
5. The atomic number increases by 1 and the mass number stayas the same.
6. Gamma rays are high electromagnetic waves emitted from a nucleus as it changes from an excited state to a ground energy state
7. According to the nuclear shell model, gamma rays are produced when nuclear particles undergo transitions in nuclear-energy levels. Gamma emission usually occurs immediately following other types of decay, which leave the nucleus in an excited state.

F. Half-Life
1. No two radioactive isotopes decay at the same rate.
2. Half-life is the time required for half the atoms of a radioactive nuclide to decay.
a. More stable nuclides decay slowly and have longer half-lives.
b. Less stable nuclides decay more quickly and have shorter half-lives.

G. Nuclear Radiation
1. Different types of nuclear radiation have different penetrating abilities. Nuclear radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
a. Alpha particles have a range of only a few centimeters in air and have a low penetrating ability due to their large mass and charge. They cannot penetrate skin. However, they can cause damage if ingested or inhaled.
b. Beta particles travel at speeds close to the speed of light and have a penetrating ability about 100 times greater than that of alpha particles. They have a range of a few meters in the air.
c. Gamma rays have the greatest penetrating ability. Protection from gamma rays requires shielding with thick layers of lead or concrete, or both.

H. Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
1. In nuclear fission, a very heavy nucleus splits into more stable nuclei of intermediate mass. This process releases enormous amounts of energy.
a. The mass of teh products is less tahn the mass of the reactants. The missing mass is converted to energy.
2. A chain reaction is a reactio nin which the material that starts the reaction is also one of the products and can start another reaction.
a. The minimum amount of nuclide that provides the number of neutrons needed to sustain a chain reaction is called the critical mass.
3. Nuclear reactors are devices that use controlled fission chain reactions to produce energy or radioactive nuclides.
4. In nuclear fusion, light mass nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus.
a. Nuclear fusion releases even more energy per gram of fuel than nuclear fission.
5. Uncontrolled fusion reactions of hydrogen are the source of energy for the hydrogen bomb. A fission reaction is used to provid eht heat and pressure necessary to trigger the fusion of nuclei.

World History

AP World History

CHANGE OVER TIME

600 CE - 1450 CE

East Asia

• Spread of Buddhism
• Revival of Confucian thinking
• Junks (ships) were highly advanced and developed--used for trade and military
• Heightened role of commerce & money
• Agrarian expansion included new farming techniques, new crops, new agricultural technology

Western Europe

• Roman Catholicism with Pope in charge
• Battle of Tours of 732 CE kept Muslims from entering Europe
• Charlemagne (of the Caroligians) created substantial empire in France & Germany around 800 CE
• Feudalism was established

Eastern Europe and Russia

• Wide social gaps
• Turkic invasions (Battle of Manzikart)
• Influx of Jews
• Orthodox Christian missionaries convert people of the Balkans
• Kievan Rus (rise and decline)

South Asia

• Sinification took place in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
• Women had higher status in Vietnam (Trung Sisters Rebellion)
• Vietnam and Korea paid tribute to China

Latin America

• Aztecs & Incas were controlled by kin groups
• Human sacrifices were made to the gods--taken from conquered territories
• Forced labor (mita)
• Polytheism
• Conquered neighboring peoples

Middle East

• Islam became a major religion
• Islamic factions split (Sunnis & Shi'ites)
• More active roles for women in society due to egalitarian beliefs in the Quran
• Used gunpowder in battle

Africa

• Organized into Sudanic states led by patriarch or council elders
• Cities were commercial and included a merchant community
• 80% of villagers farmed
• Polygamy

Major Themes/Turning Points

• Rise and spread of Islam
• Battle of Tours
• Magna Carta
• Ottoman Empire
• Chinggis Khan (followed by Timur-i Lang)
• Use of gunpowder