World History

Reserved!

Chemistry

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

The Nucleus
A. Introduction
1. Atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons which are collectively called nucleons.
2. In nuclear chemistry, an atom is referred to as a nuclide, and is identified by the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
3. Nuclides can be represented in two ways.

B. Mass Defect and Nuclear Stability
1. The measured mass of an atom is less than the calculated mass.
2. The mass defect is the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons and electrons.
3. The mass defect is caused by the conversion of mass to energy upon formation of the nucleus

C. Nucleons and Nuclear Stability
1. The stable nuclei cluster over a range of neutron-proton ratios is referred to as the band of stability
a. For atoms having low atomic numbers, the most stable nuclei are those with a neutron-proton ratio of approximately 1:1.
b. At higher atomic numbers, the stable neutron-proton ratio increases to about 1.5:1. More neutrons are required to increase teh nuclear force and stabilize the nucleus
c. Beyond the atomic number 83, bismuth, the repulsive force of the protons is so great that no stable nuclides exist.
2. Stable nuclei tend to have even numbers of nucleons. This indicates that the stability of a nucleus is greatest when nucleons, like electrons are paired.

D. Nuclear Reactions
1. Unstable nuclei undergo spontaneous changes that change their number of protons and neutrons. In this process they give off large amounts of energy and increase their stability.
2. A nuclear reaction is a reaction that affects the nucleus of an atom. In equations representing nuclear reactions, the total of the atomic number must be equal on both sides of the equation.
3. When the atomic number changes, the identity of teh element changes.
4. A transmutation is a change in the identity of a nucleus as a result of a change in teh number of its protons.

E. Radioactive Decay
1. Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus into a slightly lighter nucleus, accompanied by emission of particles, electromagnetic radiation, or both.
2. Alpha emission is restricted almost entirely to very heavy nuclei, which reduces its penetrating power (more mass=>less penetrating power).
3. Elements above the band of stability are unstable because they have too many neutrons. To decrease the number of neutrons, a neutron can be converted into a proton and an electron.
4. A beta particle is an electron emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay.
5. The atomic number increases by 1 and the mass number stayas the same.
6. Gamma rays are high electromagnetic waves emitted from a nucleus as it changes from an excited state to a ground energy state
7. According to the nuclear shell model, gamma rays are produced when nuclear particles undergo transitions in nuclear-energy levels. Gamma emission usually occurs immediately following other types of decay, which leave the nucleus in an excited state.

F. Half-Life
1. No two radioactive isotopes decay at the same rate.
2. Half-life is the time required for half the atoms of a radioactive nuclide to decay.
a. More stable nuclides decay slowly and have longer half-lives.
b. Less stable nuclides decay more quickly and have shorter half-lives.

G. Nuclear Radiation
1. Different types of nuclear radiation have different penetrating abilities. Nuclear radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
a. Alpha particles have a range of only a few centimeters in air and have a low penetrating ability due to their large mass and charge. They cannot penetrate skin. However, they can cause damage if ingested or inhaled.
b. Beta particles travel at speeds close to the speed of light and have a penetrating ability about 100 times greater than that of alpha particles. They have a range of a few meters in the air.
c. Gamma rays have the greatest penetrating ability. Protection from gamma rays requires shielding with thick layers of lead or concrete, or both.

H. Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
1. In nuclear fission, a very heavy nucleus splits into more stable nuclei of intermediate mass. This process releases enormous amounts of energy.
a. The mass of teh products is less tahn the mass of the reactants. The missing mass is converted to energy.
2. A chain reaction is a reactio nin which the material that starts the reaction is also one of the products and can start another reaction.
a. The minimum amount of nuclide that provides the number of neutrons needed to sustain a chain reaction is called the critical mass.
3. Nuclear reactors are devices that use controlled fission chain reactions to produce energy or radioactive nuclides.
4. In nuclear fusion, light mass nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus.
a. Nuclear fusion releases even more energy per gram of fuel than nuclear fission.
5. Uncontrolled fusion reactions of hydrogen are the source of energy for the hydrogen bomb. A fission reaction is used to provid eht heat and pressure necessary to trigger the fusion of nuclei.

World History

AP World History

CHANGE OVER TIME

600 CE - 1450 CE

East Asia

• Spread of Buddhism
• Revival of Confucian thinking
• Junks (ships) were highly advanced and developed--used for trade and military
• Heightened role of commerce & money
• Agrarian expansion included new farming techniques, new crops, new agricultural technology

Western Europe

• Roman Catholicism with Pope in charge
• Battle of Tours of 732 CE kept Muslims from entering Europe
• Charlemagne (of the Caroligians) created substantial empire in France & Germany around 800 CE
• Feudalism was established

Eastern Europe and Russia

• Wide social gaps
• Turkic invasions (Battle of Manzikart)
• Influx of Jews
• Orthodox Christian missionaries convert people of the Balkans
• Kievan Rus (rise and decline)

South Asia

• Sinification took place in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
• Women had higher status in Vietnam (Trung Sisters Rebellion)
• Vietnam and Korea paid tribute to China

Latin America

• Aztecs & Incas were controlled by kin groups
• Human sacrifices were made to the gods--taken from conquered territories
• Forced labor (mita)
• Polytheism
• Conquered neighboring peoples

Middle East

• Islam became a major religion
• Islamic factions split (Sunnis & Shi'ites)
• More active roles for women in society due to egalitarian beliefs in the Quran
• Used gunpowder in battle

Africa

• Organized into Sudanic states led by patriarch or council elders
• Cities were commercial and included a merchant community
• 80% of villagers farmed
• Polygamy

Major Themes/Turning Points

• Rise and spread of Islam
• Battle of Tours
• Magna Carta
• Ottoman Empire
• Chinggis Khan (followed by Timur-i Lang)
• Use of gunpowder

AP World History

CHANGE OVER TIME

8000 BCE - 600 CE

East Asia

• Modernized army
• Rise and Collapse of Empires due to internal issues
• Technological advancements included paper, iron, plows, calendars, compass
• Slavery was common; nobles & priests were at the top of social hierarchy

Western Europe

• Early colonization in islands such as Crete
• Unstable political structure in Rome (monarchy, republic, military dictatorship
• A very patriarchal society
• Polytheism
• Germanic tribes
• Serfdom

Eastern Europe and Russia

• Slavic migrations to Eastern Europe
• Loosely organized into regional kingdoms
• Primitive agriculture (and hunting)
• Skilled sailors (Phoenicians)
• Polytheism
• Byzantine Empire

South Asia

• Trade with Sumer
• Regional kingdoms
• Buddhism and Hinduism originated in India
• Strict caste system included untouchables

Latin America

• Agriculture production was limited by few domesticated animals
• Developed artistic form in precious stones, such as jade
• Accurate calendars
• Animistic and Polytheistic religions

Middle East

• Bedouin (Nomadic) tribes (very inter-dependent)
• Strict social classes with slaves
• Skilled warriors with spears and arrows
• Constant fighting

Africa

• North Africa often interacted with Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, and Vandals by trade
• Pharaohs ruled
• Christianity, Animism, and Polytheism
• Bantu migrations

Major Themes/Turning Points

• Neolithic Revolution
• Establishment of civilizations
• Religious diffusion

Chemistry: Acids and Bases

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

A. Acids

1. Properties of acids

• Aqueous solutions of acids have a sour taste. (Taste should NEVER be used as a test to evaluate any chemical substance.) Many acids, especially in concentrated solutions, are corrosive. Many are also poisons.
• Acids change the color of acid-base indicators.
• Some acids react with active metals to release hydrogen as, H2.
• Acids react with bases to produce salts and water.
• Acids conduct electric current. Because acids form ions in aqueous solutions, acids are electrolytes.

2. A binary acid is an acid that contains only 2 different elements: hydrogen and one of the more electronegative elements. Examples of binary acids include: HF, HCl, HBr, and HI.

3. Binary acid nomenclature:

• The name of the binary acid begins with the prefix hydro-
• The root of the name of the second element follows this prefix.
• The name then ends with the suffix -ic.

4. An oxyacid is an acid that is a compound of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element, usually a nonmetal. Nitric acid, HNO3, is an oxyacid.

B. Some Common Industrial Acids

1. Sulfuric acid is the most commonly produced industrial chemical in the world.

• It is used in large quantities in petroleum refining and metallurgy as well as in the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also essential to a vast number of industrial processes, including the production of metals, paper, paint, dyes, detergents and many chemical raw materials.
• Sulfuric acid is an effective dehydration (water-removing) agent.

2. Pure nitric acid is a volatile, unstable liquid rarely used in industry or laboratories.

• The acid has a suffocating odor, stains skin, and can cause serious burns.
• It is used in making explosives, many of which are nitroen-containing compounds. It is also used to make rubber, plastics, dyes, and pharmaceuticals.

3. Phosphoric acid is used directly for manufacturing fertilizers and anmial feed.

• Dilute phosphoric acid is used as a flavoring agent in beverages and as a cleansing agent for dairy equipment.
• It is also important in the manufacture of detergents and ceramics.

4. Hydrochloric acid is important for "pickling" iron and steel, which is the immersion of metals in acid solutions to remove surface impurities.

• This acid is also used in industry as a general cleaning agent, in food processing, in the activation of oil wells, in the recovery of manesium from sea water, and in the production of other chemicals.

5. Concentrated acetic acid is a clear, colorless, pungent-smelling liquid known as glacial acetic acid. It has a freezing point of only 17 degrees celsius and can form crystals in a cold room.

• White vinegar contains 4-8% acetic acid.
• Acetic acid is important industrially in synthesizing chemicals used in the manufacture of plastics. It is a raw material in the production of food suplements and it is also used as a fungicide.

C. Bases

1. Properties of bases:

• Aqueous solutions of bases taste bitter. (Taste should NEVER be used to test a substance to see if it is a base.) Many bases are caustic; they attack the skin and tissues, causing severe burns.
• Bases change the color of acid-base indicators.
• Dilute aqueous solutions of bases feel slippery.
• Bases react with acids to produce salts and water.
• Bases conduct electric current. Bases form ions in aqueous solutions and are thus electrolytes.

D. Arrhenius Acids and Bases

1. An Arrhenius acid is a chemical compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous solution.

• The acid will ionize in solution.

2. An arrhenius base is a substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH-, in aqueous solution.

3. A strong acid is one that ionize completely in aqueous solution. The strength of an acid depends on the bond between hydrogen and the element to which it is bonded, and the ease with which that bond can be broken. Examples of strong acids: hydroiodic acid, hydrobromic acid, and sulfuric acid.

4. Acids that are weak electrolytes are known as weak acids. Examples of weak acids: hydrofluoric acid, acetic acid, and oxalic acid.

5. Organic acids, which contain the acidic carboxyl group--COOH, are generally weak acids.

6. Most bases are ionic compounds containing metal caations and the hydroxide anion. When a base completely dissociates in water to yield aqueous OH- ions, the solution is referred to as alkaline.

7. Not all bases are ionic compounds. Ammonia is a base because it produces hydroxide ions when it reacts with water molecules.

8. The strength of a base depends on the extent to which the base dissociates, or adds hydroxide ions to the solution. Strong bases arestrong electrolytes.

• Bases that are not very soluble do not roduce a large number of hydroxide ions when added to water.
• Many organic comopounds that contain nitrogen atoms are also weak bases. For example, ariline, a substance used to make dyes, is a weak base.

Africa and Asia in the Era of Independence in the 20th Century

Nationalist leaders led the movements to independence in Africa and Asia; they won support of peasants and working-class people by promising them jobs, civil rights, and equality after independence was achieved. However, leaders were unable to fulfill their promises, and social unrest emerged. Rivalries and division that had dissolved by the common struggle against foreign colonizers reappeared. Political instability and depleting resources blocked improvements. Problems such as population increases, uncontrollable urban growth, rural landlessness, and environmental deterioration threatened these newly independent nations.

Food crops introduced from the New World contributed to population growth, which began even before decolonization. Colonial rule ended warfare that had caused population losses and promoted the spread of epidemics and famine. However, new railroad and steamship linds reduced famine by the ability to transport food from area to another. Population continued to increase at unprecedented levels. Unfortunately the AIDS epidemic has hindered the population of central and eastern Africa.

In most countries, there has been resistance to birth control efforts due to social patterns and traditions. The ability to bear children (especially males) boosted the status of women, and was a sign of virility for males. Also, religious beliefs also influenced their opinions. For example, Hindus believe a deceased man's soul cannot begin the cycle of rebirth until his eldest son has performed special ceremonies over his funeral pyre. Before the 20th century, high infant mortality rates made it necessary for parents to have as many children as possible to ensure the continuation of a family (usually patrilineal) lineage. In societies where welfare systems and old-age pensions were undeveloped, children took the roles of looking after the elders.

AP World History

Decolonization and the Decline of the European World Order
A. India
1. The Indian National Congress Party, formed in 1885, led the Indians to independence and has governed through most of the postcolonial era. It conducted meetings regarding issues that plagued the nation. Most members were loyal to the British (despite growing English racism).
2. Muslims and Hindus entered conflict. B. G. Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, was a fierce advocate of Hinduism, hoping to bring back ancient traditions. Other nationalists were more or less terrorists.
3. Morley-Minto reforms (1909) provided educated Indians with greater opportunities to vote for and serve local and all-India legislative councils.
4. After the outbreak of World War I, India rallied to support British troops; however, as Indians continued to die on the battlefields or went hungry at home to sustain a conflict that had little to do with them, signs of unrest spread throughout the subcontinent, which intensified when the British failed to honor wartime promises.
5. Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919 increased powers of Indian legislators at the all-India level and placed much of the provincial administration of India under their control, but these concessions was later offset by the Rowlatt Act of the same year which placed sever restrictions on key Indian civil rights such as freedom of the press.
6. Gandhi led peaceful boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, and mass demonstrations called satyagraha (truth force) and eventually weakened British control.
7. To better support their demands for separate electorates and legislative seats, several educated and well-to-do Muslims founded a rival party, the Muslim League in 1906.
8. British formed the Simon Commission in 1927 to deal with nationalist demands—mostly focused on tactics of repression, which wound up stirring up more unrest.
9. Government of India Act of 1935 made major concessions to nationalist demands; the British agreed to return provincial governments over Indian leaders, who were elected through an expanded electorate.
10. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a former Congress party politician, won favor from the British for its wartime support. He built a mass following among the Muslims who demanded a Muslim state called Pakistan be created from areas in northwest and east India where Muslims were most numerous.
B. Africa
1. Lord Cromer was high commissioner of Egypt, and he oversaw reforms in bureaucracy and construction of irrigation systems and other public works projects.
2. Resistance of British occupation was left largely to the Egyptian middle class.
3. Orabi’s revolt in 1882 led the way to Egyptian independence.
4. Egyptian writers and journalists attacked the British for their racist arrogance and exposed the corruption of the khedival regime.
5. Dinshawai Incident of 1906 occurred when British hunters accidentally shot the wife of the prayer leader of the local mosque. The angry villagers mobbed the shooting party, who in turn fired at the crowd. The British officials handed out severe punishments to those who were linked to the incident. This led to a storm of protests and fixed Egyptian resolve for independence.
6. During the World Wars European powers recruited colonies for troops, and the colonized people witnessed for the first time the fallacy of the Western powers. Also, agitation was further stirred when the people had to place the needs of European soldiers first.
7. Egyptian revolt in 1919 led to some concessions. British withdrawal occurred in stages. The khedival regime was preserved and the British reserved the right to reoccupy Egypt should it be threatened by a foreign aggressor.
8. Europe kept few of its promises and honors.
9. Kwame Nkrumah led decolonization in nonsettler Africa in the nation of Ghana, which became the first independent black African state in 1957.