Bacteria

ARCHAEBACTERIA

• They have their own domain and their own kingdom.
• Organisms that lack a nucleus
• Found in extreme environments (called extremophiles) such as geysers, nuclear reactors, volcanoes, etc...
• Some are anaerobic (without oxygen)
• 3 main phylas...

1. Methanogens- cannot live in the presence of oxygen & make methane gas, found in marshes & in the intestinal tracts of humans & cows
2. Halophiles- salt-loving, found in the Dead Sea & Great Salt Lake & other areas with high salt content
3. Thermoacidophiles- heat & acid loving, found in areas with high temperature & acidic conditions

• Cell walls are made of pseudomurein (substance that resembles peptidoglycan)

EUBACTERIA

Sickness caused by bacteria

• Anthrax- a known bioweapon
• Strep throat
• Food poisoning
• E. coli- causes diahrrea & urinary tract infections
• Staphylococcus aureus- staph infection
• Tetanus
• Lyme disease
• Botulism- paralysis (used for botox)
• Gangrene
• Syphillis
• Chlamydia
• Symptoms of a bacterial infection

1. High fever (102+)
2. High white blood cell count
3. Thick greenish, brown mucus
4. Severe headache

Benefits

• A huge number of bacteria are decomposers and they recycle carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur and other chemical elements (humans need carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur to survive)
• Also help make yogurt, cheese, buttermilk, sour cream, wine using fermentation (an anaerobic process)
• Cyanobacteria have mutualistic relationship with other organisms, primarily plants; they're nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in lichen
• Bacteria can be identified with gram staining

GRAM STAINING

Gram-positive

• Cell wall is made of many layers of peptidoglycan (protein and sugar)
• Stains the cells purple
• Can be treated wit antibiotics

Gram-negative

• Cell walls are thin
• Stains cells pink
• Not treatable with antibiotics

BACTERIA CONTINUED...

• Unicellular but in clusters mostly
• In warm and moist environment
• Classified by shape

1. Cocci- sphere/round
2. Bacilli- rod shaped
3. Spirilli- spirl shaped

Prefixes

1. Strepto- chains
2. Staphylo- clusters
3. Diplo- in pairs

• Bacteria are heterotrophs
• Cell walls are made of peptidoglycan
• Usually move by flagellum
• Others develop endospores & float through the air; endospores help bacteria survive hard conditions
• Bacteria undergoes binary fission (same thing as mitosis)
• Pass on or swap genetic information through conjugation through pili
• Bacteria grown in a lab is called culture

Broadcast Journalism

BROADCAST JOURNALISM

NEWS VALUE

• Impact
• Conflict
• Novelty
• Prominence
• Proximity
• Timeliness (most important)

CRITERIA FOR BROADCAST

• Emphasizes on timeliness
• Information
• Audio or visual impact
• People

TIMELINESS

• Breaking story receives top priority

INFORMATION

• Because of the amount of time, what & where is more important than why or how

AUDIO/VISUAL IMPACT

• Visually appealing
• Sometimes they let the pictures speak for themselves where they serve a small, brief commentary

PEOPLE

• Use people to tell the story instead of reporters

WRITING FOR BROADCAST

• Emphasize on immediacy-avoid past tense
• Be clear & simple
• Use conversational style

WRITING BROADCAST LEAD

• Prepares audience for what is to come
• Don't keep listeners guessing

LEAD-IN

• Person who's talking introduces the next person

WRAP-UP

• Gives ending before moving on to the next story

BROADCAST COPY

• Phonetically spell out word to help reader's pronounciation

SCRIPT RUNDOWN

• Working out the segments of a broadcast
• Instructions prepared by a TV producer
• Hard news near the top, sports near the end

SLUGS

• What the story is about
• Every broadcast has one

Microbiology

MICROBIOLOGY NOTES

Aseptic Technique

• Procedures to prevent bacterial growth

1. Used for surgery
2. Used for microbiology lab

• Wash & use disinfectant/antiseptic on any surface
• Wash hands & don't touch surfaces directly
• Use clamshell method to open/access petri dishes
• Do not breathe on specimen (wear masks)

Basic Streak-plating

• There are several methods for isolating colonies of bacteria on the agar
• Obtain speciman on cotton swab
• Gently rub swab over surface of the agar in the desired area
• Be sure not to penetrate the surface but also to touch the surface

Measuring Susceptibility

• Divide & label the sections of the plate according to the independent variables
• Evenly spread bacteria on entire plate

Zone of Inhibition (the place where bacterial growth was prevented)

• Place disk containing anti-microbial agent on agar in specific locations
• Measure the diameter of the area where bacterial does not grow

Disinfectants

• Destroy microorganisms found on nonliving area
• Bleach, lysol, lime away

Antiseptics

• Kills inhibits on living surfaces
• Lysterine, hydrogen peroxide

Antibiotics

• Kill inside living things
• Inhibits their growth; changes cell membrane

Bactericidal

• Penicillan
• Ampicillan

Bacteristatic (doesn't kill, just stops growth)

• Erythromycin
• Streptomycin
• Rifampin

Identifying Bacteria

• Colonies

1. Usually differ in shape, color, & shininess
2. Composed of thousands of cells
3. Can be seen with the naked eye

Viruses

VIRUSES

A person that studies viruses is known as virologist.

A virus cannot be seen with a compound light microscope because it is so small. It can be seen with an electron microscope.

What are some examples of viruses?

• Ebola
• Herpes
• Herpes Virus I
• Herpes Virus II
• Herpes Zoster
• HIV
• Influenza
• Mono

The first virus to be annihilated off of the face of the earth was small pox in 1796. It was also the first virus to have a vaccine. The smallpox vaccine was created by Edward Jenner. A vaccine is a weakened virus or the virus itself without its DNA/RNA.

What are the parts of a virus?

• Head
• Tail
• Capsid (protein shell)
• DNA/RNA
• Tail Fibers

How can you catch a virus?

• Exchanging bodily fluids
• Insect/animal bites
• Inhalation

Symptons:

• Low grade fever (100-101)
• Nausea
• Loss of appetite
• Muscle ache
• Fatigue
• Low white blood cell count

Two life cycles of a virus:

Lytic and Lysogenic

LYTIC

1. Virus attaches to host & inject its DNA into it
2. DNA is replicated by host cell
3. Parts of the virus are created
4. Viruses break out of cell

LYSOGENIC

1. Virus attaches itself to host & inject DNA inside
2. DNA attaches to host DNA
3. DNA replication (interphase)
4. Cell undergoes mitosis
5. "Weird" protein creates outbreak

What does your body do to defend yourself against viruses?

1. White blood cells recognize foreign invaders (antigen)
2. T lymphocytes carry message to other white blood cells to create antibodies
3. Antibodies flock to the antigen & wrap around it (Antibodies are like enzymes, they fit with certain antigens like a lock and the key)
4. White blood cells carry antigen to lymph nodes

Are viruses living or nonliving?

Reasons to believe they are living...

• Contain DNA/RNA
• They replicate
• They're made of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
• They undergo mutations

Reasons to believe they are nonliving...

• They do not reproduce
• They need a host
• They don't have a nucleus
• They do not grow
• They do not convert energy

Advertising

ADVERTISING

I. 4 elements of Trade

• Message
• Media
• Makeup
• Management

II. The message

• Information explaining the product, service or trend
• Should reflect an audience's style, needs & desires

III. The Meaning of Message

• Needs excellent writing (to be articulate)
• Language is used to gain knowledge

IV. Goals of Message

• Attract attention
• Arouse interest
• Create desire
• Incite action
• Give information about how it can improve lives
• Customers will make a purchase based on understanding of the features & benefits

V. Ad appeals include

• Humor
• Emotion
• Sex
• Testimony (an account of how it changed an individual)
• Bandwagon (because everyone else is buying it)
• Comparison
• Economy
• Prestige (claiming to be the best)

Human Geography of Sub Saharan Africa

I. GENERAL POPULATION PATTERNS

1. Population Growth Rate: Highest in the world (800 million and growing)
2. Youngest Population in the World: Most of population is under 15 years of age
3. Population Growth Rate: Expected to double in 29 years
4. Life Expectancy: Shortest in the world (48-53 years)

• Have high rate of disease
• Without food, people cannot get healthy to fight off disease

1. Highest Infant Mortality: Children die before they're 1 years old
2. Lowest Life Expectancy: Due to severe malnutrition, high rate of disease & few doctors
3. Uneven population distribution
4. Economic Growth Rate: Lowest in the world
5. Low Level of Education: Across the continent only 38% of boys and 32% of girls (12-17 year olds) are enrolled in school

II. WAYS OF LIFE

1. Almost 75% of people are poor and live in rural, agricultural villages
2. Most people are subsistence farmers
3. Practice slash & burn Agriculture/nutrients leach from the soil
4. Grow food for family and a small cash crop like coffee, tea, and sugar (farmers are overly dependent on these). Problem: bring in revenue but reduce land being used to grow food for family
5. Farms often fail because of fragile soil and drought
6. Droughts cause crop failures:

• Over 1 million people in Africa are starving each year
• The first victims: the very old & the very young

1. One major effect caused by droughts is desertification

• The transformation of arable land into desert
• Usually occurs as an expansion of dry conditions into moist areas that are adjacent to deserts

1. Human causes that increase the pace of desertification, death, and destruction:

• Over-grazing
• Over-planting
• Destruction of trees which leads to soil erosion
• Drought from increased population levels (requires clearing more land/burning wood for fuel/over-farming the land/increased water usage)

1. Civil war (food can be used as a weapon)

• Burn the fields of their enemies
• Poison water supplies
• Steal or corrupt food supplies
• Withold food from people unless they fight

III. ECONOMICS IN AFRICA TODAY

African nations work to modernize their countries but still suffer because colonial powers severely hurt Africa's economy. They left a legacy of NO money (capital resources) for building infrastructure, education, or businesses. Many countries have not been able to diversify/modernize. They are still countries with economies based on one-commodity or the sale of natural resources.

Barriers to African Economic Development

1. Revenues from modernization projects have not significantly increased the wealth of African countries.
2. Many African governments borrowed huge sums of money/have invested the money to modernize their countries
3. Loan payments are a major part of the budgets of African countries trying to modernize
4. Illiteracy, lack of education, and lack of skilled workers
5. Lack of economic diversity (many one-commodity nations), need to diversify for growth and stability

IV. CYCLE OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY

Economic Problems:

• One-commodity countries
• Lack of education
• No money
• Unskilled workers

Which leads to...

Ethnic Conflicts

• Civil wars
• Unequal treatment

Which leads to...

Political Conflicts

• Dictatorship
• No government
• No money, skills, or education
• Not trained to run a government

Which leads to...

Unable to Modernize

• All 3 things put together

Then the cycle starts all over again...

Classifying Organisms

KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANTS)

• Eukaryotic cells (complex & large with specific organelles)
• Multicellular (plants are composed of MANY cells)
• Autotrophic (make their own food via photosynthesis)
• Other unique features: Cells have a thick cell wall, and green parts of plant contain chloroplasts

KINGDOM ANIMALIA (ANIMALS)

• Eukaryotic cells (complex & large with specific organelles)
• Multicellular (animals are composed of MANY cells)
• Heterotrophic (must ingest/eat other organism for energy)

KINGDOM FUNGI (FUNGUSES)

• Eukaryotic cells (complex & large with specific organelles)
• Most are multicellular: ex. mushroom
• Some are unicellular: ex. yeast
• Heterotrophic (most are saprotrophs: absorb nutrient from dead or living material)

KINGDOM PROTISTA (PROTISTS/PROTOZOANS)

• Eukaryotic cells (complex & large with specific organelles)
• Most are unicellular
• Some are multicellular
• Some are heterotrophic (must ingest/eat other organism for energy)
• Some are photosynthetic autotrophs

KINGDOM EUBACTERIA (BACTERIA)

• Prokaryotic cells (very simple & small in comparison, no specific organelles)
• Unicellular (the organism is just one cell)
• Can be heterotrophic or autotrophic (characteristic for classification conditions can vary greatly)
• Cell shape is a major characteristic for classification:

1. Cocci-round or sphere shaped
2. Baccili-rod shaped
3. Spirlli-spiral shaped

KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA (ANCIENT BACTERIA)

• Prokaryotic cells (very simple & small in comparison, no specific organelle)
• Unicellular (the organism is just one cell)
• Many are extremeophiles: live in & obtain energy in very extreme conditions where no other organism would survive
• These are the oldest known organisms & believed to be the first on this planet